Encyclopedia of Russian History

Encyclopedia of Russian History James R. Millar © 2004 by Macmillan Reference Winston Churchill’s well-known description of Russia as a “riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma” has been widely quoted because it has seemed so apt to Western observers. The Cyrillic alphabet appears mysterious to the uninitiated, as does the odd system of dual dates for key historical events. Russia is huge and geographically remote, with over one hundred ethnic groups and as many languages. Historically, Russia stood on the margin of Europe proper, and Russian society experienced the Renaissance and the Reformation, which shaped modern Europe, only partially and belatedly.Physical distance and prolonged isolation from Europe would be sufficient to enhance and promote a distinctive Russian culture. Russians have themselves debated whether they are more European, or more Asian, or instead a unique Slavic civilization т-» r-» i-» i-? л ^-» i-» destined to provide the world with a “third” way. PREFACE Nikolai Gogol, one of Russia’s earliest and most original writers, expressed this messianic view in his novel Dead Souls, where he offered a speeding troika, a carriage drawn by three horses, as a metaphor for Russia:Russia, are you not speeding along like a fiery matchless troika? Beneath you the road is smoke, the bridges thunder, and everything is left far behind. At your passage the onlooker stops amazed as by a divine miracle. . . . Russia, where are you flying? Answer me! There is no answer. The bells are tinkling and filling the air with their wonderful pealing; the air is torn and thundering as it turns to wind; everything on earth comes flying past and, looking askance at her, other peoples and states move aside and make way.The Encyclopedia of Russian History is designed to help dispel the mystery of Russia. It is the first encyclopedia in the English language to comprehend the entirety of Russian history, from ancient Rus to the most recent events in post-Soviet Russia. It is not aimed primarily at specialists in the area but at general readers, students, and scholars who are curious about Russia, have historical events, dates, and persons they wish to explore or papers to write on the widely varying topics and individuals contained herein. Contributors include top scholars in history, Russian studies, military history, economics, social science, literature, philosophy, music, and art history. The 1,500 entries have been composed by over 500 scholars from 16 countries. All were instructed to “historize” their entries, thereby placing them in the larger context of Russian history. Each entry is signed and feaviitures carefully chosen cross references to related entries as well as a bibliography of print and Internet sources as suggested additional readings. The four volumes contain over 300 black and white maps and photographs illustrating the text, and each volume contains color inserts portraying the beauty and scope of Russian peoples, art, and architecture, as well as important military and political pictorials. Entries are arranged alphabetically, and the first volume includes a topical outline that organizes articles by broad categories, thereby offering teachers and students alike an informed map of Russian history. A comprehensive subject index offers yet another entry point for the set, encouraging readers to explore the four volumes in greater depth.The encyclopedia is the product of recent scholarship. Russian studies began as a significant field of study in the United States and Europe only during the Soviet era. Although a small number of scholars were active before World War II, particularly in England, the field began to grow in the United States with the onset of the Cold War in the late 1940s. When the Soviet Union launched the first earth satellite, Sputnik, in 1957, a concern for national security became a driving force for development of Russian area studies. All fields grew especially rapidly in the 1960s and 1970s, for it was recognized that study of the contemporary Soviet social system would require in-depth knowledge of the language, history, and culture of Russia. In the United States, for example, both the federal government and private foundations such as the Ford Foundation and the Carnegie Endowment funded graduate Russian studies on an almost “crash” basis. Whereas the Russian Institute of Columbia University and the Russian Research Center at Harvard dominated the field initially, by the end of the 1960s all major research institutions had Russian studies programs and were producing new Ph.D.s in the field. In fact, most of the scholars who have ever received Ph.D.s in the various fields of Russian history, social science, arts, and so forth, are still active scholars. The field of Russian-Soviet studies now has better coverage and higher quality than ever. The 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union ended the ideological constraints that communism had placed on scholarly publication, allowing scholarship to blossom in post-Soviet Russia as well. Researchers now have unprecedented access to archival and other historical materials-and to the Russian people as well. The editors and I have been fortunate, therefore, to be able to select as our contributors-the most outstanding scholars not only in the United States, but also in Britain, Europe, and Russia. Twenty years ago it would not have been possible to produce such a balanced, high quality, and comprehensive encyclopedia. The last five decades or so of intensive scholarship have greatly increased our knowledge and understanding of Russian history.As one views the length and breadth of the Russian historical experience certain continuities and recurring patterns stand out. Autocracy, for example, has ancient and strong roots in Russian history. For most of its history, Russia was led by all-powerful tsars, such as Peter the Great or Nicholas I, who served willingly as autocrats, seemingly conscious of the difficulties inherent in ruling so large and diverse a country. Even those tsars who sought to modify the autocracy, such as Alexander II, who emancipated the serfs, reversed course when confronted with revolutionary or nihilist opponents. Soviet communism lapsed into autocracy under Josef Stalin, who was perhaps the most complete autocrat since Peter the Great. More recently, Russian President, Vladimir Putin, appears to be tolerating a drift back toward autocracy in reaction to the democratic impulses of Mikhail Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin. He seems to relish comparison of his rule to that of Peter the Great.With the exception of the years under Soviet communism, Orthodoxy has been autocracy’s twin. Historically, the Russian Orthodox Church has successfully resisted attempts to separate church and state and has offered support and justification for autocracy in return. Consequently, the church and state have not welcomed religious diversity or promoted tolerance. Judaism, Catholicism, and other Christian denominations, Islam, and other religious faiths have suffered persecution and restrictions over the years. The Soviet era differed only in than all religions were persecuted in the name of official atheism. The long-term trend has apparently reasserted itself as the growing strength of the Russian Orthodox Church in the post-Soviet years has featured renewed attempts to exclude religious competition.Territorial expansion has characterized the development of Russia from the earliest days, usually through warfare and hostile partitions. The Great Northern War brought Russia to the Baltic coast, while the wars of the nineteenth century expanded Russia’s power into Central Asia. Expanviiision under the tsars included annexing territories occupied by settled peoples, as in Ukraine, Poland, and Finland, and also by nomadic tribes, as in Central Asia, and the Caucuses. The outcome of World War II extended Moscow’s reach into Eastern Europe, and during the Cold War Russia supported regimes in Afghanistan, Cuba, and insurgent movements in Central America and Africa.The process of empire-building brought more than 120 ethnic and national groups under Russian rule. It was a costly exercise requiring a large standing army. Russification versus promoting local languages and cultures in these territories was a recurring issue under tsars and commissars alike, and it remains an issue today in the Russian Federation. The collapse first of the Soviet empire in East-Central Europe in 1988-1989 and then of the USSR itself in 1991 caused an equivalent contraction in Moscow’s power and undermined the economy as well. Consequently, although Russia’s leaders have sought to maintain and even increase influence in what only Russians call the “near abroad,” that is the former republics of the USSR, the empire has shrunk to its smallest extent since the eighteenth century, and the Russia Federation’s influence in its former republics, not to mention Eastern and Central Europe, has been severely constrained by a lack of funds as well as by local nationalist feelings.Successful modernization of Europe has been viewed by Russians as either a possible model for Russia’s development or as a threat to her distinctive, peculiar social, political and economic institutions. From Russia’s vantagepoint on the periphery of Europe, to modernize has meant to Westernize, with all the political and economic baggage that that implies. Periodically, Russia’s leaders have opened the “door” to Europe, as Peter the Great put it, only to have it closed or restricted by those who have sought to maintain and foster Russia’s unique civilization and its messianic mission in world history. In one form or another there has been a recurring struggle since the time of Peter the Great between the Slavophiles and the Westernizers, and this was even true during the Soviet era. Lenin and Trotsky and the Old Bolsheviks thought they were opening Russia to a global communist system. Stalin closed it tightly and created an autarkic economy. Nikita Khrushchev, Gorbachev, and Yeltsin opened Russia once again to the West, ultimately with catastrophic consequences for the empire. It has been difficult, however, to overcome the pull of the “Russian idea,” and post-Soviet development policies have been undercut by an ambiguous commitment to democratization and marketiza-tion.These issues, autocracy, Orthodoxy, territorial expansionism, modernization, and cultural uniqueness, have appeared, disappeared, and reappeared throughout Russian history. Western and Russian historians have argued at length about the strength, significance, and permanence of these themes, and the articles contained in this encyclopedia explore these issues as impartially and objectively as possible.There is no question, however, about the unique, unparalleled contributions of Russian culture to art, music, literature, philosophy, and science. Where would we be without Glinka, Mussorgsky, Tchaikovsky, Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Chekhov, Rublev, Mendeleyev, Sakharov and the many, many other artists, thinkers, and scientists that Russia’s citizens of all nationalities have produced? The editors and I hope that the reader will use this encyclopedia to sample the richness of Russian history and be induced to explore Russian culture in depth.STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA PROJECT When Macmillan Reference USA approached me seeking an editor in chief for a projected Encyclopedia of Russian History, I realized that if I could persuade the best scholars in the field to serve as Associate Editors and on an Editorial Board, and if we could persuade other top scholars to write entries, the experience would be educational and highly worthwhile. I also realized that it would necessarily be a “labor of love” for all involved. Participating scholars would have to believe in the intrinsic value of the project. I first approached Dr. Ann Robertson, who was serving as Managing Editor of my journal, Problems of Post-Communism, to see whether she would be willing to contribute her outstanding editorial skills as well as her expertise in political science to work closely with me as Senior Associate Editor on the encyclopedia. Next I approached Professor Nicholas Riasanovsky of University of California at Berkeley. As the leading historian of Russia and director of innumerable Ph.D. dissertations in the field, Professor Riasanovsky represented the keystone in the construction of the editorial committee. I knew that his name would assure other scholars of the serious academic nature of the project. I was soon able to recruit an ixawesome set of associate editors: Daniel Kaiser of Grinnell College, Louise McReynolds of the University of Hawaii at Manoa, Donald Raleigh of the University of North Carolina, and Ronald Suny of the University of Chicago. With their assistance we recruited an equally outstanding Advisory Board.Below are very brief biographies of the distinguished members on the Editorial Board:Editor in Chief James R. Millar (Ph.D. Cornell University) is professor of economics and international affairs at the Institute for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies at the George Washington University. His primary areas of research are Soviet/Russian economic history and economics of the transition.Daniel H. Kaiser (Ph.D. University of Chicago) is professor of history at Grinnell College in Iowa. His academic specialty is history and family life in early modern Russia.Louise McReynolds (Ph.D. University of Chicago) is professor of history at the University of Hawaii. She specializes in Russian intellectual history and cultural studies.Donald J. Raleigh (Ph.D. Indiana University) is professor of history at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. His research specialization is twentieth-century Russian and Soviet history and the Russian civil war.Nicholas V. Riasanovsky (D.Phil. Oxford University) is professor emeritus of history at the University of California at Berkeley. He is the author of A History of Russia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963, sixth edition, 1999).Ann E. Robertson (Ph.D. George Washington University) is managing editor of the journal Problems of Post-Communism, National Council for Eurasian and East European Research. She specializes in post-Soviet political science.Ronald Grigor Suny (Ph.D. Columbia University, 1968) is professor of political science at the University of Chicago. His research specialty is comparative politics and Russian history with special attention to non-Russian peoples.The editorial board assembled at George Washington University in January 2001 to plan the encyclopedia. The topics we identified eventually totaled 1,500 entries. We decided to create basic article categories in an attempt to capture the range and scope of over 1,000 years of Russian history and culture. As a result, articles in the Encyclopedia describe: Historical Events Documents, Declarations, or Treaties Military Campaigns or Battles The Arts, Literature, Philosophy, or Science Economic Developments or Strategies Ethnic Groups Geographical Regions Political or Territorial Units (Cities, Regions, Government Ministries) Countries Prominent in Russian History Government Policies or Programs Organizations, Movements, or Political Parties Influential Individuals Basic Terms or PhrasesOver the next few months members of the editorial board wrote scope statements and identified word lengths (ranging from 250 to 5,000 words) for the articles in their segment of the table of contents. Our goal was to produce four volumes and one million words, a quota we easily could have exceeded. After authors were commissioned and assignments completed, each article was read by the appropriate member of the Editorial Board and by the Editor in Chief for final approval. Macmillan Reference staff has edited the entries for clarity, consistency, and style.A number of transliteration systems exist for presenting Russian proper names and terms in the English language. As the main audience for the encyclopedia is not expected to be familiar with the Russian language, strict adherence to any one system could appear artificial and intimidating. The editors decided to use standard American spelling of well-known proper names as they would appear in the New York Times (e.g., Boris Yeltsin, not Boris El’tsin). In all other cases transliterations conform to the conventions established by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names. Within this system we made a few exceptions: ligatures, soft signs, and hard signs are omitted; names ending in “-ii,” “-yi,” or “-yy” are shortened to “-y”; and names of tsars and saints have been Anglicized, as Peter the Great and Saint Basil, not Petr and Vasily. The editors believe that this modified system for transliteration will be more readable and understandable than the alternatives.Dates in Russian history can be somewhat confusing because tsarist Russia continued to use “Old Style” (O.S.) dates, based on the Julian calendar, up to the 1917 Revolution. In 1917 the Julian calenxdar was 13 days behind the Gregorian, which had been used in Europe since 1582. The Bolsheviks adopted New Style (N.S.) dates. Thus, the October 25th Revolution was celebrated on November 7th.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSI want to thank James Goldgeier, director of the Institute for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies of The George Washington University for institutional support and personal encouragement. The staff of the Institute, especially Vedrana Hadzialic and Jennifer Sieck, have efficiently and cheerfully helped advance this project in many ways.Leah Markowitz ably served as research assistant in the early phases of the project. Jill Lectka, Director of Publishing Operations and Joe Clements, Senior Editor for Macmillan Reference USA, and their staff, have simply been superb in providing the managerial, editorial, and promotional support for the creation of the Encyclopedia of Russian History. They have been tactful but persistent in encouraging the editors and contributors to meet deadlines and make any necessary editorial changes. Brian Kinsey initiated the project in 2001 and Shawn Corridor joined the editorial team in the spring of 2003 to supervise final author corrections and entry preparation. We have been fortunate to have such outstanding professionals working with us.JAMES R. MILLAR EDITOR IN CHIEFAbkhaziansB. George HewittAbortion PolicySharon A. KowalskyAcademy of ArtsRosalind P. BlakesleyAcademy of SciencesAlexander VucinichAdministration for Organized Recruitment Michael EllmanAdministration, Military David R. JonesAdmiraltyWilliam Craft BrumfieldAdygeSeteney ShamiAdzhubei, Alexei Ivanovich William TaubmanAeroflotPaul R. GregoryAfghanistan, Relations with Roger KangasAganbegyan, Abel Gezevich Michael EllmanAgitpropK. Andrea RusnockAgrarian Party of Russia Nikolai PetrovAgrarian Reforms Robert C. StuartAgricultureRobert C. StuartAigun, Treaty of Steven I. LevineAjarsB. George HewittAkayev, Askar Akayevich Paul J. KubicekAkhmatova, Anna Andreyevna Diana SenechalAkhromeyev, Sergei Fyodorovich Jacob W. KippAkhundov, Mirza Fath Ali Gregory TwymanLIST OF ARTICLESxvLIST OF ARTICLESAkkerman, Convention of Bruce W. MenningAksakov, Ivan Sergeyevich Abbott GleasonAksakov, Konstantin Sergeyevich Abbott GleasonAlash OrdaDavid R. JonesAlaskaJohanna GranvilleAlbanians, Caucasian Robert H. HewsenAlcoholismKate TranschelAlcohol Monopoly Patricia HerlihyAlexander IJean K. BergerAlexander IIStephen M. NorrisAlexander IIIPeter WaldronAlexander Mikhailovich Martin DimnikAlexander Yaroslavich Martin DimnikAlexandra Fedorovna Nicholas GansonAlexandrov, Grigory Alexandrovich Denise J. YoungbloodAlexei I, Patriarch Nathaniel DavisAlexei II, PatriarchNikolas K. GvosdevAlexei Mikhailovich Philip LongworthAlexei Nikolayevich Nicholas GansonAlexei PetrovichLindsey HughesAlexeyev, Mikhail Vasilievich Oleg R. AirapetovAliyev, HeidarGerard J. LibaridianAllied Intervention Norman E. SaulAlliluyeva, Svetlana Iosifovna Johanna GranvilleAltaiVictor L. MoteAltynRoman K. KovalevAmalrik, Andrei Alexeyevich Peter RollbergAmerican Relief Administration William Benton WhisenhuntAnarchismCarl A. LindenAndrei Alexandrovich Martin DimnikAndrei Yaroslavich Martin DimnikAndrei Yurevich Martin DimnikAndreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich Peter RollbergAndreyeva, Nina Alexandrovna Jonathan HarrisAndropov, Yuri Vladimirovich Marc D. ZlotnikAndrusovo, Peace of W. M. Reger IVAnna IvanovnaZhand P. ShakibiAnthony Khrapovitsky, Metropolitan Robert L. NicholsAnthony Vadkovsky, Metropolitan Robert L. NicholsAnti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Raymond L. GarthoffAnti-Comintern Pact Harold J. GoldbergAnti-Party GroupWilliam TaubmanAntonov UprisingA. Delano DuGarmAppanage EraElvira M. WilburxviLIST OFARTICLESApparatJames R. MillarApril ThesesRex A. WadeArchitectureWilliam Craft BrumfieldArchivesPatricia Kennedy GrimstedArmand, InessaElizabeth A. WoodArmenia and Armenians George A. BournoutianArmenian Apostolic Church Paul CregoArmoryLindsey HughesArms ControlWalter C. Clemens Jr.ArtekJonathan D. WallaceArticle 6 of 1977 Constitution Gordon B. SmithAssembly of the Land Richard HellieAssortment Plans Susan J. LinzAstrakhan, Khanate of Roman K. KovalevAtomic EnergyPaul R. JosephsonAugust 1991 Putsch Ann E. RobertsonAusterlitz, Battle ofFrederick W. KaganAustria, Relations with Hugh LeCaine AgnewAutocracyZhand P. ShakibiAvarsPaul CregoAviationAlbert L. WeeksAvvakum Petrovich Cathy J. PotterAzerbaijan and Azeris Gregory TwymanBabel, Isaac Emmanuyelovich Milton EhreBabi BuntyBrian KassofBaikal-Amur Magistral Railway Christopher J. WardBakatin, Vadim Viktorovich Jacob W. KippBakhtin, Mikhail Mikhailovich Gary Saul MorsonBakuAudrey AltstadtBakunin, Mikhail Alexandrovich Albert L. WeeksBalaklava, Battle of Andrew LambertBalalaikaSerge RogosinBalkan WarsRichard FruchtBalkarsPaul CregoBalletTim SchollBaltic FleetJohanna GranvilleBanking System, Soviet Pekka SutelaBanking System, Tsarist Martin C. SpechlerBanyaRoman K. KovalevBarannikov, Viktor Pavlovich Jacob W. KippBarone, EnricoRichard E. EricsonBarshchinaElvira M. WilburBarsov, Alexander Alexandrovich Michael EllmanBaryatinsky, Alexander Ivanovich Ronald Grigor SunyxviiLIST OF ARTICLESBashkortostan and Bashkirs Daniel E. SchaferBasil IMikhail M. KromBasil IIMikhail M. KromBasil IIIMikhail M. KromBasmachisDaniel E. SchaferBatuDonald OstrowskiBauer, Yevgeny Frantsevich Joan NeubergerBazarov, Vladimir Alexandrovich Vincent BarnettBeard TaxBrian BoeckBednyakiMartin C. SpechlerBelarus and Belarusians David M. GoldfrankBelinsky, Vissarion Grigorievich Peter RollbergBelovezh Accords Paul J. KubicekBely, AndreiDiana SenechalBerdyayev, Nikolai Alexandrovich Bernice Glatzer RosenthalBeria, Lavrenti Pavlovichv Amy KnightBering, Vitus Jonassen Ilya VinkovetskyBerlin BlockadeThomas ParrishBerlin, Congress ofDavid M. GoldfrankBerlin, Convention of Nikolas GvosdevBeschestieNancy Shields KollmannBessarabiaJohn GledhillBestuzhev-Ryumin, Alexei Petrovich John T. AlexanderBirchbark Charters Simon FranklinBirobidzhanRobert WeinbergBiron, Ernst Johann John T. AlexanderBlack EarthVictor L. MoteBlack Hundred Jack LangerBlack Market Julie HesslerBlack RepartitionA. Delano DuGarmBlack Sea FleetMichael ParrishBlatMartin C. SpechlerBloch, JanJacob W. KippBlok, Alexander Alexandrovich Diana SenechalBloody SundayWalter SablinskyBobrikov, Nikolai Ivanovich Tuomo PolvinenBolotnikov, Ivan Isayevich Chester DunningBolshevismRobert C. WilliamsBolshoi Theater Tim SchollBonner, Yelena Georgievna Lisa A. KirschenbaumBook of Degrees Gail LenhoffBoretskaya, Marfa Ivanovna Gail LenhoffBorodino, Battle ofFrederick W. KaganBorotbistySerhy YekelchykxviiiLIST OF ARTICLESBoyarSergei BogatyrevBoyar DumaSergei BogatyrevBrazauskas, Algirdas Alfred Erich SennBrest-Litovsk Peace Sally A. BonieceBrezhnev Doctrine Kieran WilliamsBrezhnev, Leonid IlichRichard D. Anderson Jr.Brodsky, Joseph Alexandrovich Maria EitinguinaBruce, James David Johanna GranvilleBrusilov, Alexei Alexeyevich Bruce W. MenningBryusov, Valery Yakovlevich Mark KonecnyBucharest, Treaty of Radu R. FlorescuBudenny, Semeon Mikhailovich Jonathan D. SmeleBukharaSeymour BeckerBukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich Carol Gayle William MoskoffBukovinaJohn GledhillBulgakov, Mikhail Afanasievich Diana SenechalBulgakov, Sergei Nikolayevich Catherine EvtuhovBulganin, Nikolai Alexandrovich Roger D. MarkwickBulgariansJohanna GranvilleBulgaria, Relations with Kyril DrezovBund, JewishJohn D. KlierBunin, Ivan Alexeyevich Milton EhreBureaucracy, Economic Paul R. GregoryBuryatsJohanna GranvilleButashevich-Petrashevsky, Mikhail Vasilievich Dmitri GlinskiBylinaNorman W. InghamByzantium, Influence of Simon FranklinCabaretJohanna GranvilleCabinet of Ministers, Imperial John M. ThompsonCabinet of Ministers, Soviet Gerald M. EasterCadres PolicyChristopher WilliamsCalendarAnn E. RobertsonCantonistsJohn D. KlierCapitalismThomas C. OwenCarpatho-RusynsPaul Robert MagocsiCathedral of Christ the Savior Nicholas GansonCathedral of St. Basil Lindsey HughesCathedral of St. Sophia, Kiev William Craft BrumfieldCathedral of St. Sophia, Novgorod William Craft BrumfieldCathedral of the Archangel Lindsey HughesCathedral of the Dormition Lindsey HughesCatherine ILindsey HughesCatherine IIJohn T. AlexanderCatholicismGregory L. FreezexixLIST OF ARTICLESCaucasian WarsRobert F. BaumannCaucasusPaul CregoCaves Monastery David K. PrestelCaviarVictor L. MoteCensorshipCharles A. RuudCentral AsiaRoger KangasCentral Bank of Russia Juliet JohnsonCentral CommitteeJohanna GranvilleCentral Control Commission Nick BaronCentral Statistical Agency Steven RosefieldeChaadayev, Peter Yakovlevich Raymond T. McNallyChagall, MarcMark KonecnyChancellery System Peter B. BrownChapayev, Vasily Ivanovich Denise J. YoungbloodChapbook Literature E. Anthony SwiftCharskaya, Lydia Alexeyevna Elizabeth Jones HemenwayCharter of the Cities George E. MunroCharter of the Nobility Nickolas LupininChastushkaRoman K. KovalevChayanov, Alexander Vasilievich Stephan MerlChebrikov, Viktor Mikhailovich Amy KnightChechnya and Chechens Johanna NicholsChekhov, Anton Pavlovich Andrew R. DurkinCherkessSeteney ShamiChernenko, Konstantin Ustinovich Marc D. ZlotnikChernobylDavid R. MarplesChernomyrdin, Viktor Stepanovich Peter ReddawayChernov, Viktor Mikhailovich Sarah BadcockChernuhkaEliot BorensteinChernyshev, Alexander Ivanovich Frederick W. KaganChernyshevsky, Nikolai Gavrilovich Victoria KhitererChervonetsJuliet JohnsonChesme, Battle of John C. K. DalyChicherin, Georgy Vasilievich Teddy J. UldricksChina, Relations with Steven I. LevineChirikov, Alexei Ilich John McCannonChkalov, Valery Pavlovich John McCannonChkheidze, Nikolai Semenovich Stephen JonesChristianizationDonald OstrowskiChronicle of Current Events Marshall S. ShatzChronicle of Human Rights in the USSR Marshall S. ShatzChroniclesGail LenhoffChubais, Anatoly Borisovich Stefan HedlundChuikov, Vasily Ivanovich David M. GlantzxxLIST OF ARTICLESChukchiGail A. FondahlChukovskaya, Lydia Korneyevna Jacqueline M. OlichChukovsky, Kornei Ivanovich Elizabeth Jones HemenwayChurch CouncilGeorge T. KosarChurch Council, Hundred Chapters Debra A. CoulterChuvashDaniel E. SchaferCimmeriansRoman K. KovalevCircusR?sa Magn?sd?ttirCivic UnionMichael EllmanCivil War of 1425-1450 Richard HellieCivil War of 1917-1922 Donald J. RaleighClass SystemLewis H. SiegelbaumClimateVictor L. MoteCold WarMark KramerCollective FarmRobert C. StuartCollective Responsibility Brian BoeckCollectivization of Agriculture Robert C. StuartColonial Expansion Richard HellieColonialismDaniel BrowerCommand Administrative Economy Richard E. Ericson IIICommanding Heights of the Economy Martin C. SpechlerCommissarSharon A. KowalskyCommittee for the Operational Management of the National Economy Peter RutlandCommittee of Soldiers’ Mothers Jacob W. KippCommittees of the Village Poor A. Delano DuGarmCommonwealth of Independent States Paul J. KubicekCommunismJohn M. ThompsonCommunist AcademyDavid BrandenbergerCommunist BlocYaroslav BilinskyCommunist Information Bureau Gale StokesCommunist International William J. ChaseCommunist Party of the Russian Federation Luke MarchCommunist Party of the Soviet Union Graeme GillCommunist Youth Organizations Anne E. GorsuchCongress of People’s Deputies Thomas F. RemingtonCongress of Russian Communities Nikolai PetrovConsistoryVera ShevzovConstituent Assembly Michael MelanconConstitutional Court Gordon B. SmithConstitutional Democratic Party Melissa K. StockdaleConstitution of 1918 Albert L. WeeksConstitution of 1936 Karen PetroneConstitution of 1977 Peter B. MaggsConstitution of 1993 Gordon B. SmithxxiLIST OF ARTICLESConstructivismHugh D. Hudson Jr.Control FiguresMartin C. SpechlerConventional Forces in Europe Treaty Johanna GranvilleCooperatives, Law on Carol Gayle William MoskoffCooperative Societies William Moskoff Carol GayleCopper RiotsJarmo T. KotilaineCorporal Punishment Boris N. MironovCorporation, Russian Thomas C. OwenCosmopolitanism Karl D. QuallsCossacksBruce W. MenningCouncil for Mutual Economic Assistance Daniel R. KazmerCouncil of Ministers, Soviet Derek WatsonCounterreformsDaniel OrlovskyCountry EstatesPriscilla RooseveltCourt, High Arbitration Peter B. MaggsCourt, SupremePeter B. MaggsCrimeaTaras KuzioCrimean Khanate Alan FisherCrimean Tatars Alan FisherCrimean WarDavid M. GoldfrankCrony Capitalism Stefan HedlundCuban Missile Crisis Hugh PhillipsCuba, Relations with Cole BlasierCult of Personality Karen PetroneCultural Revolution Sheila Fitzpatrick Benjamin ZajicekCustine, Astolphe Louis Leonor Peter RollbergCustoms BooksJarmo T. KotilaineCyril and Methodius Society Serhy YekelchykCyrillic AlphabetAnn E. RobertsonCyril of TurovNorman W. InghamCzartoryski, Adam Jerzy Johanna GranvilleCzechoslovakia, Invasion of Kieran WilliamsCzechoslovakia, Relations with Ann E. RobertsonDagestanPaul CregoDaniel, Metropolitan David M. GoldfrankDaniel, Yuli Markovich John McCannonDanilevsky, Nikolai Yakovlevich Albert L. WeeksDarginsPaul CregoDashkova, Yekaterina Romanovna Michelle Lamarche MarreseDashnaktsutiunGerard J. LibaridianDecembrist Movement and Rebellion Elena ZemskovaDecree on LandStephen K. WegrenDedovshchinaJonathan WeilerxxiiLIST OFARTICLESDefectors, Soviet Era Amy KnightDemocratic Party Nikolai PetrovDemocratic Russia Nikolai PetrovDemocratic Union Nikolai PetrovDemocratization Dmitri GlinskiDemographyCynthia J. BuckleyDengaRoman K. KovalevDenikin, Anton Ivanovich Anatol ShmelevDenmark, Relations with Jarmo T. KotilaineDeportations Eric LohrDerzhavin, Gavryl Romanovich Johanna GranvilleDe-Stalinization Graeme GillD?tenteMarie-Pierre ReyDeveloped SocialismVladimir E. ShlapentokhDezhnev, Semen Ivanovich John McCannonDiagilev, Sergei Pavlovich Tim SchollDialectical Materialism Alfred B. Evans Jr.Dictatorship of the Proletariat Ray TarasDioceseCathy J. PotterDionisyA. Dean McKenzieDisenfranchized Persons Golfo AlexopoulosDissident Movement Yaroslav BilinskyDmitry Alexandrovich Martin DimnikDmitry, FalseChester DunningDmitry Mikhailovich Martin DimnikDmitry of Uglich Brian BoeckDoctors’ PlotDavid BrandenbergerDolgansJohanna GranvilleDomostroiCarolyn Johnston PouncyDonation BooksLudwig SteindorffDonskoy, Dmitry Ivanovich Gail LenhoffDostoyevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich Peter RollbergDudayev, Dzhokhar Dmitri GlinskiDugin, Alexander Gelevich Jacob W. KippDumaJohn M. ThompsonDunayevsky, Isaak Osipovich Richard StitesDunganJohanna GranvilleDurova, Nadezhda Andreyevna Mary ZirinDvoeverieStella RockDvorianstvoRichard HellieDyachenko, Tatiana Borisovna Peter ReddawayDyakPeter B. BrownDzerzhinsky, Felix Edmundovich Robert E. BlobaumEconomic Growth, Extensive Martin C. SpechlerxxiiiLIST OF ARTICLESEconomic Growth, Imperial Paul R. GregoryEconomic Growth, Intensive Steven RosefieldeEconomic Growth, Soviet Gur OferEconomic Reform Commission Michael EllmanEconomismMartin C. SpechlerEconomy, Post-Soviet Paul R. GregoryEconomy, Tsarist Carol Gayle William MoskoffEdinonachalie Susan J. LinzEducationBrian KassofEhrenburg, Ilya Grigorovich John Patrick FarrellEisenstein, Sergei Mikhailovich Joan NeubergerElectoral Commission Nikolai PetrovElectricity Grid Peter RutlandElizabethJohn T. AlexanderEmancipation ActJulia UlyannikovaEmpire, USSR asZhand P. ShakibiEngels, FriedrichAlfred B. Evans Jr.Enlightenment, Impact of Olga TsapinaEnserfmentRichard HellieEnterprise, Soviet Susan J. LinzEnvironmentalism Rachel MayEpiscopate Zoe KnoxEstonia and Estonians Art LeeteEthiopian Civil War Johanna GranvilleEthnography, Russian and Soviet Nathaniel KnightEvenkiGail A. FondahlFaberg?, Peter CarlLouise McReynoldsFamily Code of 1926 Wendy GoldmanFamily Code on Marriage, the Family, and GuardianshipWendy GoldmanFamily Edict of 1944Rebecca Balmas NearyFamily Laws of 1936 Wendy GoldmanFamine of 1891-1892Richard G. Robbins Jr.Famine of 1921-1922 Mark B. TaugerFamine of 1932-1933 Mark B. TaugerFamine of 1946Nicholas GansonFar Eastern Region Gilbert RozmanFatherland-All Russia Nikolai PetrovFeast BooksLudwig SteindorffFebruary Revolution Rex A. WadeFederal AssemblyThomas F. RemingtonFederalismRoger KangasFederal Property Fund James R. MillarFederation TreatiesEdward W. WalkerFeldman, Grigory Alexandrovich Martin C. SpechlerxxivLISTOF ARTICLESFeldsherSamuel C. RamerFellow TravelersKarl E. LoewensteinFeminismLinda EdmondsonFerghana ValleyMichael RoulandFeudalismRichard HellieFilaret Drozdov, Metropolitan Robert NicholsFilaret Romanov, Patriarch Russell E. MartinFinlandPaul J. KubicekFinns and Karelians Rein TaageperaFirebirdNorman W. InghamFive-Hundred-Day Plan Robert W. CampbellFive-Year PlansHolland HunterFlorence, Council of George P. MajeskaFolklorePatricia ArantFolk MusicSusannah Lockwood SmithFondoderzhateliPaul R. GregoryFonvizin, Denis Ivanovich Johanna GranvilleFoodDarra GoldsteinForeign DebtStefan HedlundForeign TradeMartin C. SpechlerFrance, Relations with Marie-Pierre ReyFree Economic Society Carol Gayle William MoskoffFreemasonryOlga TsapinaFrench Influence in Russia Martine MespouletFrench War of 1812 Frederick W. KaganFrontier Fortifications Brian DaviesFrunze, Mikhail Vasilievich Michael ParrishFull Economic Accounting Susan J. LinzFundamental Laws of 1906 Oleg BudnitskiiFunded Commodities James R. MillarFuturismHugh D. Hudson Jr.Fyodor Alexeyevich Lindsey HughesFyodor IIChester DunningFyodor IvanovichJohanna GranvilleFyodorov, Boris Grigorievich Peter RutlandFyodorov, IvanHugh M. OlmstedGagarin, Yuri Alexeyevich Phyllis ConnGagauzMikhail GubogloGaidar, Yegor Timurovich Peter RutlandGamsakhurdia, Zviad Stephen JonesGapon, Georgy Apollonovich Walter SablinskyGaspirali, Ismail Bey Edward J. LazzeriniGatchinaWilliam Craft BrumfieldGeneral SecretaryNorma C. NoonanxxvLIST OF ARTICLESGeneticistsJames R. MillarGeneva Summit of 1985 Raymond L. GarthoffGenoa ConferenceTeddy J. UldricksGenocideGerard J. LibaridianGeographyVictor L. MoteGeorgia and Georgians Paul CregoGeorgian Orthodox Church Paul CregoGerman Democratic Republic Melissa R. JordineGerman SettlersKevin Alan BrookGermany, Relations with Melissa R. JordineGigantomaniaVictoria KhitererGinzburg, Evgenia Semenovna Alison RowleyGKOsPekka SutelaGlasnostCarl A. LindenGlavkiMartin C. SpechlerGlavlitBrian KassofGlinka, Mikhail Ivanovich Matthias StadelmannGlinskaya, Yelena Vasilyevna Isolde Thyr?tGnezdovoHeidi M. ShermanGodunov, Boris Fyodorovich Chester DunningGogol, Nikolai Vasilievich Diana SenechalGolden Age of Russian Literature Michael A. DennerGolden HordeDonald OstrowskiGold StandardJuliet JohnsonGolitsyn, Vasily Vasilievich Lindsey HughesGoncharova, Natalia Sergeyevna Jane A. SharpGoncharov, Ivan Alexandrovich Catherine O’NeilGoods FamineRobert C. StuartGorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich Archie BrownGorbachev, Raisa Maximovna Archie BrownGorchakov, Alexander Mikhailovich Norman E. SaulGordon, Patrick Leopold Jarmo T. KotilaineGoremykin, Ivan Longinovich John M. ThompsonGorky, Maxim Tovah YedlinGosbankJuliet JohnsonGosizdatBrian KassofGoskomstatMartine MespouletGosplanPaul R. GregoryGostiSamuel H. BaronGostinaya SotnyaJarmo T. KotilaineGosudaryev DvorSergei BogatyrevGoverning SenateZhand P. ShakibiGrain Crisis of 1928 Carol Gayle William MoskoffGrain TradeBoris N. MironovxxviLIST OF ARTICLESGrand AllianceDavid M. GlantzGrand PrinceJanet MartinGreat Britain, Relations with Johanna GranvilleGreat Northern WarPaul A. BushkovitchGreat Reforms Daniel FieldGreece, Relations with Johanna GranvilleGreeksPatricia HerlihyGreen MovementA. Delano DuGarmGriboedov, Alexander Sergeyevich Johanna GranvilleGrigorenko, Peter Grigorievich Jonathan WeilerGrishin, Viktor Vasilievich Terry D. ClarkGrivnaRoman K. KovalevGromov, Boris Vsevolodovich Jacob W. KippGromyko, Andrei Andreyevich Graeme GillGrossman, Vasily Semenovich Karl E. LoewensteinGuards, Regiments of Frederick W. KaganGuba Administrative System Brian DaviesGuberniyaNick BaronGuildsThomas C. OwenGulagDavid J. NordlanderGUMJulie HesslerGumilev, Lev Nikolayevich Jacob W. KippGumilev, Nikolai Stepanovich Brian KassofGypsyDarrell SliderGypsymaniaRichard StitesHagiography Gail LenhoffHague Peace Conferences Walter C. Clemens Jr.Hanseatic LeagueLawrence N. LangerHard Budget Constraints Susan J. LinzHayek, FriedrichRichard E. EricsonHealth Care Services, Imperial Samuel C. RamerHealth Care Services, Soviet Mark G. FieldHegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Albert L. WeeksHelsinki AccordsChristopher J. WardHerzen, Alexander Ivanovich Dmitri GlinskiHigher Party School Peter RutlandHilarion, Metropolitan David K. PrestelHis Majesty’s Own Chancery Zhand P. ShakibiHistorical SongsNorman W. InghamHistoriographyOleg BudnitskiiHoly AllianceDavid WetzelHoly SynodDebra A. CoulterHomeless ChildrenJacqueline M. OlichHrushevsky, Mikhail Sergeyevich Serhy YekelchykxxviiLIST OF ARTICLESHuman Rights Peter JuvilerHungarian Revolution Johanna GranvilleHungary, Relations with Johanna GranvilleHunsRoman K. KovalevIconsGregory L. FreezeIdealismBoris GubmanIgorMartin DimnikIlminsky, Nikolai Ivanovich Isabelle KreindlerImmigration and Emigration Eric LohrImperial Russian Geographical Society Victor L. MoteImperial Russian Technological Society Martine MespouletIndex Number Relativity Gur OferIndicative Planning Martin C. SpechlerIndustrialization Robert C. StuartIndustrialization, Rapid Gur OferIndustrialization, Soviet Paul R. GregoryInorodtsyJohn D. KlierInput-Output Analysis Steven RosefieldeInstitute of Red Professors David BrandenbergerInstruction, Legislative Commission of Catherine II Michelle DenBesteIntelligentsiaVictoria KhitererIntermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty Walter C. Clemens Jr.International Space Station John M. LogsdonInter-Regional Deputies’ Group Peter ReddawayIran, Relations withRobert O. FreedmanIraq, Relations withRobert O. FreedmanIron CurtainKarl D. QuallsIslamAdeeb KhalidIsrael, Relations with Robert O. FreedmanItaly, Relations with J. Calvitt Clarke IIIIvan IMartin DimnikIvan IIMartin DimnikIvan IIIMikhail M. KromIvan IVSergei BogatyrevIvan VPaul A. BushkovitchIvan VILindsey HughesIvashko, Vladimir Antonovich David R. MarplesIzbaRichard HellieIzvestiyaMatthew E. LenoeIzyaslav IMartin DimnikIzyaslav Mstislavich Martin DimnikJackson-Vanik Agreement Robert O. FreedmanJadidismEdward J. LazzeriniJapan, Relations with Charles E. ZieglerxxviiiLIST OFARTICLESJassy, Treaty ofBruce W. MenningJewsJohn D. KlierJoakim, Patriarch Cathy J. PotterJob, PatriarchDebra A. CoulterJoseph of Volotsk, St. David M. GoldfrankJournalismCharles A. RuudJudaizersDavid M. GoldfrankJuly Days of 1917 Michael C. HickeyKabardiansSeteney ShamiKaganovich, Lazar Moyseyevich Kate TranschelKAL 007Timothy ThomasKaliningradRichard J. KrickusKalinin, Mikhail Ivanovich Kate TranschelKalmyksJohanna GranvilleKamenev, Lev Borisovich Michael C. HickeyKandinsky, Vassily Vassilyvich Mark KonecnyKantorovich, Leonid Vitaliyevich Martin C. SpechlerKaplan, FanyaSally A. BonieceKarachaiBrian BoeckKarakalpaksPaul J. KubicekKarakhan Declaration Teddy J. UldricksKaramzin, Nikolai Mikhailovich Andreas Sch?nleKasyanov, Mikhail Mikhailovich Peter RutlandKatkov, Mikhail Nikiforovich Victoria KhitererKatyn Forest Massacre Albert L. WeeksKaufman, Konstantin Petrovich Daniel BrowerKazakhstan and Kazakhs David R. JonesKazanDonald OstrowskiKellogg-Briand Pact Teddy J. UldricksKerensky, Alexander Fyodorovich Rex A. WadeKhabarov, Yerofei Pavlovich John McCannonKhakassJohanna GranvilleKhalkin-Gol, Battle of Mary R. HabeckKhantyArt LeeteKhasbulatov, Ruslan Imranovich Ann E. RobertsonKhazarsRoman K. KovalevKhivaDaniel BrowerKhmelnitsky, Bohdan Frank E. SysynKhomyakov, Alexei Stepanovich Abbott GleasonKhovanshchinaLindsey HughesKhozraschetSusan J. LinzKhrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich William TaubmanKhutorWilliam Moskoff Carol GayleKievan Caves Patericon David K. PrestelxxixLIST OF ARTICLESKievan RusJanet MartinKireyevsky, Ivan Vasilievich Abbott GleasonKirill-Beloozero Monastery Robert RomanchukKiriyenko, Sergei Vladilenovich Hugh PhillipsKirov, Sergei Mironovich Paul M. HagenlohKlyuchevsky, Vasily Osipovich Boris N. MironovKokoshin, Andrei Afanasievich Jacob W. KippKolchak, Alexander Vasilievich N. G. O. PereiraKollontai, Alexandra Mikhailovna Barbara Evans ClementsKomiRein TaageperaKomuchVictor M. FicKondratiev, Nikolai Dmitrievich Vincent BarnettKonev, Ivan Stepanovich Michael ParrishKonstantin Nikolayevich Larissa ZakharovaKopeckJarmo T. KotilaineKoreansAndrei LankovKorean WarKathryn WeathersbyKorea, Relations with Andrei LankovKorenizatsyaRobert MaierKormchaya Kniga Martin DimnikKormlenieStefan HedlundKornai, JanosMartin C. SpechlerKornilov Affair Rex A. WadeKorolenko, Vladimir Galaktionovich Johanna GranvilleKorsh TheaterLouise McReynoldsKoryaksJohanna GranvilleKorzhakov, Alexander Vasilievich Peter ReddawayKosmodemyanskaya, Zoya Rosalinde SartortiKosygin, Alexei Nikolayevich Graeme GillKosygin ReformsMartin C. SpechlerKotoshikhin, Grigory Karpovich Benjamin UroffKovalev, Sergei Adamovich Peter ReddawayKovalevskaya, Sofia Vasilievna Mary ZirinKozlov, Frol Romanovich William TaubmanKozyrev, Andrei Vladimirovich Paul J. KubicekKrasnov, Pyotr Nikolayevich Jonathan D. SmeleKravchuk, Leonid Makarovich Robert S. KravchukKremlinWilliam Craft BrumfieldKremlinologyAnthony D’AgostinoKritzman, Lev Natanovich Nick BaronKronstadt UprisingA. Delano DuGarmKropotkin, Pyotr Alexeyevich John SlatterKrupskaya, Nadezhda Konstantinovna Elizabeth A. WoodKrylov, Ivan Andreyevich Louise McReynoldsxxxLIST OF ARTICLESKryuchkov, Vladimir Alexandrovich Amy KnightKuchuk Kainarji, Treaty of Norman E. SaulKulaksStephan MerlKuleshov, Lev Vladimirovich Denise J. YoungbloodKulikovo Field, Battle of Donald OstrowskiKulturnostJulia ObertreisKunayev, Dinmukhammed Akhmedovich David R. JonesKurbsky, Andrei Mikhailovich Sergei BogatyrevKurdsJohanna GranvilleKuril IslandsCharles E. ZieglerKuritsyn, Fyodor Vasilevich David M. GoldfrankKuropatkin, Alexei NikolayevichDavid Schimmelpenninck van der OyeKursk, Battle ofDavid M. GlantzKursk Submarine Disaster Jacob W. KippKustarE. Anthony SwiftKutuzov, Mikhail Ilarionovich Frederick W. KaganKuybyshev, Valerian Vladimirovich Kate TranschelKuznetsov, Nikolai Gerasimovich Michael ParrishKyrgyzstan and Kyrgyz Roger KangasLaborDavid PrettyLabor BooksRobert C. StuartLabor DayRobert C. StuartLabor Theory of Value Alfred B. Evans Jr.Lake BaikalRachel MayLand and Freedom Party Christopher WilliamsLand CaptainOleg BudnitskiiLandsbergis, Vytautas Alfred Erich SennLand Tenure, Imperial EraMichelle Lamarche MarreseLand Tenure, Soviet and Post-Soviet Stephen K. WegrenLanguage LawsVladislava ReznikLatvia and Latvians Andrejs PlakansLaw Code of 1649 Richard HellieLay of Igor’s Campaign Norman W. InghamLazarev InstituteGeorge A. BournoutianLeague of Armed Neutrality Norman E. SaulLeague of NationsTeddy J. UldricksLeague of the Militant Godless Daniel PerisLebed, Alexander Ivanovich Jacob W. KippLefortovoGeorg WurzerLeft Opposition Kate TranschelLeft Socialist Revolutionaries Michael MelanconLegal SystemsMichael NewcityLegislative Commission of 1767-1768 Janet HartleyLeichoudes, Ioannikios and Sophronios Nikolaos A. ChrissidisxxxiLIST OF ARTICLESLeipzig, Battle of Oleg BudnitskiiLena Goldfields Massacre Michael MelanconLend LeaseMikhail SuprunLeningrad Affair Richard BidlackLeningrad, Siege of Richard BidlackLenin’s TestamentChristopher WilliamsLenin’s TombKaren PetroneLenin, Vladimir Ilich Christopher ReadLeontiev, Konstantin Nikolayevich Alfred B. Evans Jr.Lermontov, Mikhail Yurievich Zhand P. ShakibiLeskov, Nikolai Semenovich Peter RollbergLesnaya, Battle ofPaul A. BushkovitchLezginsPaul CregoLiberal Democratic Party Nikolai PetrovLiberalismHugh PhillipsLiberman, Yevsei Grigorevich Robert W. CampbellLigachev, Yegor Kuzmich Jonathan HarrisLikhachev, Dmitry Sergeyevich John Patrick FarrellLithuania and Lithuanians Alfred Erich SennLitvinov, Maxim Maximovich Hugh PhillipsLiving Church Movement Edward E. RoslofLivonian WarMikhail M. KromLobachevsky, Nikolai Ivanovich Alexander VucinichLocal Government and Administration Igor YeykelisLomonosov, Mikhail Vasilievich Alexander VucinichLoris-Melikov, Mikhail Tarielovich Oleg BudnitskiiLotman, Yuri Mikhailovich Johanna GranvilleLovers of Wisdom, The Victoria FredeLubokGary ThurstonLubyankaGeorg WurzerLukashenko, Alexander Grigorievich David R. MarplesLukyanov, Anatoly Ivanovich Ann E. RobertsonLunacharsky, Anatoly Vasilievich Sheila FitzpatrickLuzhkov, Yuri Mikhailovich Terry D. ClarkLysenko, Trofim Denisovich R?sa Magn?sd?ttirMachine Tractor Stations Robert C. StuartMafia Capitalism Stefan HedlundMain Political Directorate Ann E. RobertsonMakarov, Stepan Osipovich Jacob W. KippMakary, Metropolitan Donald OstrowskiMakhno, Nestor Ivanovich Jonathan D. SmeleMalenkov, Georgy Maximilyanovich David R. MarplesMalevich, Kazimir Severinovich Hugh D. Hudson Jr.Malta SummitRaymond L. GarthoffxxxiiLIST OF ARTICLESMandelshtam, Nadezhda Yakovlevna Judith E. KalbMandelshtam, Osip Emilievich Judith E. KalbManifesto of 1763John T. AlexanderMansiRein TaageperaMari El and the Mari Seppo LallukkaMarket Socialism Richard EricsonMarriage and Family Life William G. WagnerMartov, Yuli Osipovich Nick BaronMarxismAlfred B. Evans Jr.MaslenitsaRoman K. KovalevMaterial Balances Susan J. LinzMaterial Product System Misha V. BelkindasMatryoshka DollsPriscilla RooseveltMatveyev, Artamon Sergeyevich Martha Luby LahanaMaxim the Greek, St. Hugh M. OlmstedMayakovsky, Vladimir Vladimirovich Mark KonecnyMazepa, Hetman Ivan Stepanovich Lindsey HughesMedvedev, Roy Alexandrovich Roger D. MarkwickMedvedev, Sylvester Agafonikovich Nikolaos A. ChrissidisMedvedev, Zhores Alexandrovich R?sa Magn?sd?ttirMelnikov, Konstantin Stepanovich Hugh D. Hudson Jr.MemorialPeter ReddawayMendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich Alexander VucinichMensheviksAlice K. PateMenshikov, Alexander Danilovich Lindsey HughesMercantilismMartin C. SpechlerMerchantsThomas C. OwenMeskhetian Turks Justin OdumMestnichestvoNancy Shields KollmannMetropolitanDonald OstrowskiMeyerhold, Vsevolod Yemilievich Sharon Marie CarnickeMighty HandfulMatthias StadelmannMigrationCynthia J. BuckleyMikhailovsky, Nikolai Konstantinovich Dmitri GlinskiMikhalkov, Nikita Sergeyevich Joan NeubergerMikoyan, Anastas Ivanovich Roger D. MarkwickMilitary ArtBruce W. MenningMilitary DoctrineBruce W. MenningMilitary-Economic Planning Mark HarrisonMilitary, Imperial Era Bruce W. MenningMilitary-Industrial Complex Steven RosefieldeMilitary IntelligenceDavid Schimmelpenninck van der OyeMilitary ReformsJohn W. SteinbergMilitary, Soviet and Post-Soviet Roger R. ReesexxxiiiLIST OF ARTICLESMilyukov, Paul Nikolayevich Oleg BudnitskiiMilyutin, Dmitry Alexeyevich Larissa ZakharovaMilyutin, Nikolai Alexeyevich Daniel FieldMingreliansB. George HewittMinin, KuzmaMaureen PerrieMinistries, Economic Paul R. GregoryMinistry of Foreign Trade James R. MillarMinistry of Internal Affairs Mark GaleottiMirStephan MerlMIR Space Station John M. LogsdonMniszech, Marina Chester DunningMoiseyev, Mikhail Alexeyevich Jacob W. KippMoldova and Moldovans William CrowtherMolotov, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Derek WatsonMonasticismScott M. KenworthyMonetary Overhang Pekka SutelaMonetary System, Soviet Pekka SutelaMontenegro, Relations with John D. TreadwayMordvinsIsabelle KreindlerMorozova, Feodosya Prokopevna Nada BoskovskaMorozov, Boris Ivanovich Richard HellieMorozov, Pavel Trofimovich Catriona KellyMoscowTerry D. ClarkMoscow Agricultural Society Robert E. JohnsonMoscow Art TheaterSharon Marie CarnickeMoscow Baroque Lindsey HughesMoscow, Battle of Anthony YoungMoscow Olympics of 1980 Paul R. JosephsonMoskvitin, Ivan Yurievich John McCannonMotion PicturesDenise J. YoungbloodMovement for Democratic Reforms Jonathan HarrisMovement in Support of the Army Nikolai PetrovMstislavMartin DimnikMuraviev, NikitaJohanna GranvilleMusavatGregory TwymanMuscovyDavid M. GoldfrankMuseum, Hermitage Ann E. RobertsonMusicMatthias StadelmannMyasoedov Affair Eric LohrNagorno-KarabakhGerard J. LibaridianNagrodskaya, Evdokia Apollonovna Johanna GranvilleNakhichevanGregory TwymanNakhimov, Pavel Stepanovich John C. K. DalyNapoleon IMarie-Pierre ReyxxxivLIST OFARTICLESNarimanov, Nariman Audrey AltstadtNarva, Battles ofPaul A. BushkovitchNaryshkina, Natalia Kirillovna Lindsey HughesNational Library of Russia Janice T. PilchNationalism in the Arts Stephen M. NorrisNationalism in the Soviet Union Victoria KhitererNationalism in Tsarist Empire Timothy SnyderNationalities Policies, Soviet Jeremy SmithNationalities Policies, Tsarist Andreas KappelerNation and Nationality Vera TolzNavarino, Battle of John C. K. DalyNazarbayev, Nursultan Abishevich David R. JonesNazi-Soviet Pact of 1939 Derek WatsonNear AbroadChristopher WilliamsNechayev, Sergei Geradievich Philip PomperNekrasov, Nikolai Alexeyevich Johanna GranvilleNemchinov, Vasily Sergeyevich Robert W. CampbellNemtsov, Boris Ivanovich Hugh PhillipsNenetsGail A. FondahlNeoclassicismRosalind P. GrayNerchinsk, Treaty of Jarmo T. KotilaineNeronov, IvanCathy J. PotterNesselrode, Karl Robert David M. GoldfrankNet Material Product Misha V. BelkindasNew Economic Policy Martin C. SpechlerNew-Formation Regiments W. M. Reger IVNew Political Thinking Archie BrownNewspapersMatthew E. LenoeNew Statute of Commerce Richard HellieNicaragua, Relations with Cole BlasierNicholas IStephen M. NorrisNicholas IIPeter WaldronNihilism and Nihilists Alfred B. Evans Jr.Nijinsky, Vaslav Fomichv Tim SchollNikitin, Afanasy Gail LenhoffNikon, Patriarch Cathy J. PotterNil Sorsky, St.David M. GoldfrankNogaiRoman K. KovalevNomenklaturaAlbert L. WeeksNormanist Controversy Heidi M. ShermanNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization Andrew A. MichtaNorthern Convoys Mikhail SuprunNorthern FleetJohanna GranvilleNorthern Peoples Gail A. FondahlxxxvLIST OF ARTICLESNorway, Relations with Jarmo T. KotilaineNovgorod, Archbishop of Lawrence N. LangerNovgorod Judicial Charter Lawrence N. LangerNovgorod the Great Janet MartinNovikov, Nikolai Ivanovich Johanna GranvilleNovocherkassk Uprising Samuel H. BaronNovosibirsk ReportAlfred B. Evans Jr.Novosiltsev, Nikolai Nikolayevich Hugh PhillipsNovozhilov, Viktor Valentinovich Robert W. CampbellNovy MirCatharine NepomnyashchyNystadt, Treaty of Lindsey HughesObrokElvira M. WilburObruchev, Nikolai Nikolayevich Oleg R. AirapetovObshchinaSteven A. GrantOccultismMaria CarlsonOctober 1993 Events Peter ReddawayOctober General Strike of 1905 Gerald D. SurhOctober Manifesto Oleg BudnitskiiOctober RevolutionAlexander RabinowitchOctobrist PartyZhand P. ShakibiOdoyevsky, Vladimir Fyodorovich Johanna GranvilleOfficial NationalityCynthia Hyla WhittakerOgarkov, Nikolai Vasilevich Jacob W. KippOkolnichySergei BogatyrevOkudzhava, Bulat Shalovich Gerald SmithOld Believer Committee Roy R. RobsonOld BelieversRoy R. RobsonOld StyleAnn E. RobertsonOlegMartin DimnikOlgaDavid K. PrestelOperaAlbrecht GaubOperation Barbarossa A. Delano DuGarmOprichninaSergei BogatyrevOrdin-Nashchokin, Afanasy Lavrentievich Martha Luby LahanaOrdzhonikidze, Grigory Konstantinovich Nick BaronOrganized Crime Louise ShelleyOrgburoChristopher WilliamsOrlova, Lyubov Petrovna Denise J. YoungbloodOrlov, Grigory Grigorievich John T. AlexanderOrthodoxyEdward E. RoslofOsetinsBrian BoeckOsorina, Yulianya Ustinovna Nada BoskovskaOstromir GospelDavid K. PrestelOstrovsky, Alexander Nikolayevich Gary ThurstonxxxviLIST OF ARTICLESOtrepev, GrigoryChester DunningOur Home Is Russia Party Nikolai PetrovPacific FleetJohanna GranvillePaganismDavid K. PrestelPakistan, Relations with Johanna GranvillePalekh PaintingK. Andrea RusnockPale of Settlement Diana FisherPaleologue, Sophia Isolde Thyr?tPallas, Peter-SimonAlexander VucinichPamyatZoe KnoxPanslavismAbbott GleasonParis, Congress and Treaty of 1856 David M. GoldfrankParis, First and Second Treaties of Marie-Pierre ReyParty Congresses and Conferences Robert V. DanielsParty of Russian Unity and Accord Nikolai PetrovPassport SystemGolfo AlexopoulosPasternak, Boris Leonidovich Larissa RudovaPatriarchatePaul A. BushkovitchPaul IMarie-Pierre ReyPavliuchenko, Lyudmila Mikhailovna Kazimiera J. CottamPavlova, Anna Matveyevna Tim SchollPavlov, Ivan Petrovich Sharon A. KowalskyPavlov, Valentin Sergeyevich Johanna GranvillePeasant EconomyStephen K. WegrenPeasantryRobert E. JohnsonPeasant Uprisings Dmitri GlinskiPechenegsRoman K. KovalevPeking, Treaty of Steven I. LevinePelevin, Viktor Olegovich Eliot BorensteinPeople’s Commissariat of Nationalities Ronald Grigor SunyPeople’s Control Committee Ann E. RobertsonPeople’s HousesE. Anthony SwiftPeople’s Party of Free Russia Nikolai PetrovPeople’s Will, The Deborah PearlPerestroikaArchie BrownPermanent Revolution Carl A. LindenPerovskaya, Sofia Lvovna Oleg BudnitskiiPersian Gulf WarRobert O. FreedmanPestel, Pavel Ivanovich Paul CregoPeter ILindsey HughesPeter IILindsey HughesPeter IIILindsey HughesPeter and Paul FortressWilliam Craft BrumfieldPetrashevtsyKathryn WeathersbyxxxviiLIST OF ARTICLESPetrov, Grigory Spiridonovich Jennifer HeddaPetrushkaPatricia ArantPetty Tutelage Susan J. LinzPhotography Erika WolfPimen, Patriarch Nathaniel DavisPirogov, Nikolai Ivanovich Alexander VucinichPisarev, Dmitry Ivanovich Johanna GranvillePlanners’ Preferences Richard EricsonPlaton (Levshin) J. Eugene ClayPlatonov, Sergei Fyodorovich Oleg BudnitskiiPlehve, Vyacheslav Konstantinovich Edward H. JudgePlekhanov, Georgy Valentinovich Samuel H. BaronPlenumJulie deGraffenriedPobedonostsev, Konstantin Michelle DenBestePodgorny, Nikolai Viktorovich Roger D. MarkwickPodyachyPeter B. BrownPodzolVictor L. MotePogodin, Mikhail Petrovich Johanna GranvillePogromsDavid PrettyPokrovsky, Mikhail Nikolayevich George EnteenPolandTheodore R. WeeksPolar ExplorersJohn McCannonPolesJohanna GranvillePolish Rebellion of 1863 Brian PorterPolitburoGraeme GillPolitical Party SystemThomas F. RemingtonPolotsky, SimeonPaul A. BushkovitchPolovtsyRoman K. KovalevPoltava, Battle ofJarmo T. KotilainePolyaneRoman K. KovalevPomestieRichard HelliePonomarev, Boris Kharitonovich Roger D. MarkwickPopov, Alexander Stepanovich Johanna GranvillePopov, Gavriil Kharitonovich Erik S. HerronPopov, Pavel IlichRobert W. CampbellPopular Front Policy Harold J. GoldbergPopulismChristopher WilliamsPort Arthur, Siege of Bruce W. MenningPortsmouth, Treaty of Nikolas GvosdevPosadnikLawrence N. LangerPossessors and Non-Possessors David M. GoldfrankPostal SystemAlison RowleyPotemkin, Grigory Alexandrovich John T. AlexanderPotemkin Mutiny Igor YeykelisxxxviiiLIST OF ARTICLESPotsdam Conference Joseph L. NogeePozharsky, Dmitry Mikhailovich Maureen PerriePravdaMatthew E. LenoePreobrazhensky Guards Bruce W. MenningPreobrazhensky, Yevgeny Alexeyevich Don FiltzerPresidencyErik S. HerronPresidential CouncilChristopher WilliamsPresidium of Supreme Soviet Richard HelliePrimakov, Yevgeny Maximovich Robert V. DanielsPrimary ChronicleDonald OstrowskiPrimary Party Organization Christopher WilliamsPrime MinisterGerald M. EasterPrimitive Socialist Accumulation James R. MillarPrisonsGeorg WurzerPrison SongsJulia UlyannikovaPrivatizationMarie LavigneProcuracyGordon B. SmithProdnalogStephen K. WegrenProdrazverstkaStephen K. WegrenProduction Sharing Agreement James R. MillarProkofiev, Sergei Sergeyevich Matthias StadelmannProkopovich, Feofan Gregory L. FreezeProletkultLynn MallyPropp, Vladimir Iakovlevich Natalie O. KononenkoProstitutionLaurie BernsteinProtazanov, Yakov Alexandrovic Denise J. YoungbloodProtestantismPaul D. SteevesProtopopov, Alexander Dmitrievich Nicholas V. RiasanovskyProvisional Government Daniel OrlovskyPrussia, Relations with Hugh PhillipsPruth River, Campaign and Treaty of Jean K. BergerPskov Judicial Charter Lawrence N. LangerPublic Opinion Studies Steven A. GrantPugachev, Emelian Ivanovich John T. AlexanderPugo, Boris Karlovich Jacob W. KippPurges, The GreatGabor T. RitterspornPushkin, Alexander Sergeyevich Diana SenechalPushkin HouseVanessa BittnerPutin, Vladimir Vladimirovich Dale HerspringPytatakov, Georgy Leonidovich Kate TranschelQuadruple Alliance and Quintuple Alliance Hugh PhillipsRabbinical Commission ChaeRan Y. FreezeRabkrinNick BaronRachmaninov, Sergei Vasilievich Albert L. WeeksxxxixLIST OF ARTICLESRadek, Karl Bernardovich William J. ChaseRadishchev, Alexander Nikolayevich W. Gareth JonesRadzinsky, Edvard Stanislavich Jacob W. KippRaikin, Arkady Isaakovich Robert WeinbergRailwaysVictor L. MoteRaionirovanieJames HeinzenRapallo, Treaty ofHarold J. GoldbergRasputin, Grigory Yefimovich Joseph T. FuhrmannRastrelli, BartolomeoWilliam Craft BrumfieldRatchet Effect Susan J. LinzRazin Rebellion James G. HartRaznochintsyVictoria KhitererRedemption Payments A. Delano DuGarmRed GuardsRex A. WadeRed SquareWilliam Craft BrumfieldRed TerrorVladimir BrovkinReferendum of April 1993 Nikolai PetrovReferendum of December 1993 Gordon B. SmithReferendum of March 1991 Edward W. WalkerRefuseniksJonathan D. WallaceRegionalismSusan Smith-PeterReitern, Mikhail Khristoforovich Jacob W. KippReligionGregory L. FreezeRepin, Ilya Yefimovich Louise McReynoldsRepressed Inflation Steven RosefieldeRevolution of 1905 Abraham AscherReykjavik SummitRaymond L. GarthoffRight Opposition Kate TranschelRimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai Andreyevich Matthias StadelmannRodzianko, Mikhail Vladimirovich John M. ThompsonRoerich, Nicholas Konstantinovich John McCannonRomania, Relations with Radu R. FlorescuRomanova, Anastasia Isolde Thyr?tRomanova, Anastasia Nikolayevna Ann E. RobertsonRomanov Dynasty Russell E. MartinRomanov, Grigory Vasilievich Ann E. RobertsonRomanov, Mikhail Fyodorovich Russell E. MartinRomanticismYuri TulupenkoRostislavMartin DimnikRostovtsev, Mikhail Ivanovich A. Delano DuGarmRota SystemJanet MartinRoute to GreeksRoman K. KovalevRubleJarmo T. KotilaineRuble Control Pekka SutelaxlLIST OF ARTICLESRublev, AndreiA. Dean McKenzieRuble ZoneJuliet JohnsonRumyantsev, Peter Alexandrovich Lindsey HughesRurikMartin DimnikRurikid Dynasty Janet MartinRussia-Belarus Union Omer FisherRussia CompanyMaria Salomon ArelRussian Association of Proletarian Writers Brian KassofRussian Federal Securities Commission James R. MillarRussian Federation Johanna GranvilleRussian Geographical Society Victor L. MoteRussian JusticeDaniel H. KaiserRussian National Unity Party William D. JacksonRussian Orthodox Church Gregory L. FreezeRussiansNancy RiesRussian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic Johanna GranvilleRussian State Library Janice T. PilchRussia’s Democratic Choice Nikolai PetrovRussificationTheodore R. WeeksRusso-Japanese War John W. SteinbergRusso-Persian WarsRobert F. BaumannRusso-Turkish Wars Bruce W. MenningRutskoi, Alexander Vladimirovich Jacob W. KippRybkin, Ivan Petrovich Nikolai PetrovRykov, Alexei Ivanovich Derek WatsonRyleyev, Kondraty Fyodorovich Johanna GranvilleRyutin, Martemyan James WhiteRyzhkov, Nikolai Ivanovich Ann E. RobertsonSaintsGregory L. FreezeSakha and Yakuts Erin K. CrouchSakharov, Andrei Dmitrievich Lisa A. KirschenbaumSaltykov-Shchedrin, Mikhail Yevgrafovich Emil DraitserSamiRein TaageperaSamizdatNickolas LupininSamoilova, Kondordiya Nikolayevna Barbara Evans ClementsSamoupravlenie Susan J. LinzSan Stefano, Treaty of Oleg R. AirapetovSarmatiansBrian PorterSartsMichael RoulandSberbankJuliet JohnsonScience and Technology Policy Paul R. JosephsonScience FictionYvonne Helen HowellScientific Socialism Michael EllmanScissors CrisisRobert C. StuartxliLIST OF ARTICLESScythiansRoman K. KovalevSecond EconomyMichael AlexeevSecond SecretaryAlbert L. WeeksSecretariatNorma C. NoonanSectarianismJ. Eugene ClaySecurity Council Peter RutlandSerapion BrothersElizabeth Jones HemenwaySerbia, Relations with Richard FruchtSerednyakiMartin C. SpechlerSerfdomRichard HellieSergei, PatriarchEdward E. RoslofSergius, St.David B. MillerService StateRichard HellieSevastopolJacob W. KippSeven-Year PlanMartin C. SpechlerSeven Years’ WarStephen M. NorrisShahumian, Stepan Georgievich Ronald Grigor SunyShakhrai, Sergei Mikhailovich Ann E. RobertsonShakhty TrialPeter H. Solomon Jr.ShamilMichael RoulandShaposhnikov, Boris Mikhailovich Bruce W. MenningShatalin, Stanislav Sergeyevich Dmitri GlinskiShcharansky, Anatoly Nikolayevich Johanna GranvilleShchepkin, Mikhail Semeonovich Louise McReynoldsShcherbatov, Mikhail Mikhailovich Johanna GranvilleShevardnadze, Eduard Amvrosievich Melvin GoodmanShevchenko, Taras Gregorevich Serhy YekelchykShlyapnikov, Alexander Gavrilovich Barbara AllenShock TherapyStefan HedlundShockworkersLewis H. SiegelbaumSholokhov, Mikhail Alexandrovich Karl E. LoewensteinShort CourseDavid BrandenbergerShostakovich, Dmitri Dmitrievich Matthias StadelmannShow TrialsPaul M. HagenlohShuisky, Vasily Ivanovich Chester S. L. DunningShumeiko, Vladimir Filippovich Ann E. RobertsonSiberiaVictor L. MoteSikorsky, Igor Ivanovich Johanna GranvilleSilver AgeJohn E. BowltSimeonMartin DimnikSimonov, Konstantin Mikhailovich Karl E. LoewensteinSimonov Monastery Nickolas LupininSinodikLudwig SteindorffSinope, Battle ofJohn C. K. DalyxliiLIST OF ARTICLESSinyavsky-Daniel Trial Jonathan D. WallaceSkazElizabeth Jones HemenwaySkobelev, Mikhail Dmitriyevich Daniel BrowerSkrypnyk, Mykola Oleksyovych Serhy YekelchykSlaveryRichard HellieSlavo-Greco-Latin Academy Nikolaos A. ChrissidisSlavophilesChristopher WilliamsSlutsky, Boris Abromovich Gerald SmithSlutsky, Yevgeny Yevgenievich Vincent BarnettSmolensk ArchiveChristopher WilliamsSmolensk War Brian DaviesSmolny InstituteAnna KuxhausenSmychkaCarol Gayle William MoskoffSobchak, Anatoly Alexandrovich Peter RutlandSocial Democratic Workers Party Robert C. WilliamsSocialismAbraham AscherSocialism in One Country Derek WatsonSocialist RealismCynthia A. RuderSocialist Revolutionaries Michael MelanconSokolovsky, Vasily Danilovich Michael ParrishSolidarity Movement Elizabeth TeagueSoloviev, Vladimir Sergeyevich Greg GautSolovki Monastery Jennifer B. SpockSolzhenitsyn, Alexander Isayevich Brian KassofSophiaLindsey HughesSorge, RichardMichael ParrishSorokoustLudwig SteindorffSoskovets, Oleg Nikolayevich Peter ReddawaySoslovieGregory L. FreezeSoul TaxMartin C. SpechlerSovietDavid PrettySoviet-Finnish War Richard H. BidlackSoviet-German Trade Agreement of 1939 Edward E. Ericson IIISoviet ManAlfred B. Evans Jr.Soviet-Polish War Timothy SnyderSovkhozRobert C. StuartSovnarkhozyDerek WatsonSovnarkomDerek WatsonSoyuz Faction Peter RutlandSpace ProgramJohn M. LogsdonSpanish Civil War Mary R. HabeckSpecial Purpose Forces Mark GaleottiSperansky, Mikhail Mikhailovich Albert L. WeeksSpiridonova, Maria Alexandrovna Sally A. BoniecexliiiLIST OF ARTICLESSpiritual EldersRobert L. NicholsSports PolicyVictor RosenbergSputnikPaul R. JosephsonStakhanovite Movement Lewis H. SiegelbaumStalingrad, Battle of David M. GlantzStalin, Josef Vissarionovich Graeme GillStanislavsky, Konstantin Sergeyevich Sharon Marie CarnickeStarovoitova, Galina Vasilievna Paul J. KubicekStasova, Yelena Dmitrievna Barbara Evans ClementsStasov, Vladimir Vasilievich Elizabeth K. ValkenierState CapitalismSteven RosefieldeState Committees Derek WatsonState CouncilZhand P. ShakibiState Defense Committee Roger R. ReeseState Enterprise, Law of the Martin C. SpechlerState OrdersPaul R. GregoryState PrincipleMikhail M. KromState Security, Organs of Stuart FinkelStatute of Grand Prince Vladimir Daniel H. KaiserStatute of Grand Prince Yaroslav Daniel H. KaiserStavkaBruce W. MenningStefan Yavorsky, Metropolitan J. Eugene ClayStenka RazinElena PavlovaStepashin, Sergei Vadimovich Jacob W. KippSteppeVictor L. MoteStiliagiLarissa RudovaStock Exchanges James R. MillarStolbovo, Treaty of Nikolas GvosdevStolnikDavid M. GoldfrankStolypin, Peter Arkadievich Francis W. WcisloSt. PetersburgAnn E. Robertson Blair A. RubleStrategic Arms Limitation Treaties Matthew O’GaraStrategic Arms Reduction Talks Matthew O’GaraStrategic Defense Initiative Johanna GranvilleStravinsky, Igor Fyodorovich Tim SchollStreltsyW. M. Reger IVStroibankJuliet JohnsonStrumilin, Stanislav Gustavovich Julia ObertreisStruve, Peter Bernardovich Carl A. LindenStukachAlbert L. WeeksSt?rmer, Boris Vladimirovich Samuel A. OppenheimSubbotnikSteven RosefieldeSubway Systems Andrew JenksSuccession, Law on Lindsey HughesxlivLIST OFARTICLESSuccession of Leadership, Soviet Norma C. NoonanSudebnik of 1497George G. WeickhardtSudebnik of 1550George G. WeickhardtSudebnik of 1589 Richard HellieSukonnaya SotnyaJarmo T. KotilaineSultan-Galiev, Mirza Khaidargalievich Daniel E. SchaferSumarokov, Alexander Petrovich Marcus C. LevittSupreme SovietAlbert L. WeeksSuslov, Mikhail Andreyevich Elaine MacKinnonSuvorin, Alexei Sergeyevich Charles A. RuudSuvorov, Alexander Vasilievich Bruce W. MenningSvansB. George HewittSvechin, Alexander Andreyevich James J. SchneiderSvyatopolk IMartin DimnikSvyatopolk IIMartin DimnikSvyatoslav IMartin DimnikSvyatoslav IIMartin DimnikSweden, Relations with Jarmo T. KotilaineSyn Boyarsky Brian DaviesSytin, Ivan Dmitrievich Charles A. RuudTable of RanksLindsey HughesTagankaMaia KippTajikistan and Tajiks Roger KangasTale of Avraamy Palitsyn Brian BoeckTannenberg, Battle of Dennis ShowalterTarkovsky, Andrei Arsenievich Nick BaronTashkentRoger KangasTASSMatthew E. LenoeTatarstan and Tatars Daniel E. SchaferTaxesMartin C. SpechlerTax, TurnoverMartin C. SpechlerTchaikovsky, Peter Ilyich Tim SchollTechpromfinplan Susan J. LinzTeheran Conference Joseph L. NogeeTeleological Planning Robert C. StuartTelevision and Radio Lucie HribalTemporary Regulations Abraham AscherTeremLindsey HughesTer-Petrossian, Levon Gerard J. LibaridianTerritorial-Administrative Units Edward W. WalkerTerrorismAnna GeifmanThaw, TheSusan CostanzoTheaterSusan CostanzoTheophanes the Greek A. Dean McKenziexlvLIST OF ARTICLESThick Journals Peter RollbergThin JournalsLouise McReynoldsThird RomeDavid M. GoldfrankThirteen Years’ War W. M. Reger IVThree Emperors’ League Jean K. BergerThree-Field System Daniel FieldTiflisRonald Grigor SunyTikhon, Patriarch Edward E. RoslofTilsit, Treaty of David WetzelTime of TroublesChester DunningTithe Church, KievWilliam Craft BrumfieldTkachev, Petr Nikitich Albert L. WeeksTogan, Ahmed Zeki Validov Daniel E. SchaferTolstaya, Tatiana Nikitichna Harold D. BakerTolstoy, Alexei Konstantinovich Elizabeth Jones HemenwayTolstoy, Leo Nikolayevich Michael A. DennerTomsky, Mikhail Pavlovich Alison RowleyTorkyRoman K. KovalevTotalitarianism Abbott GleasonTourismShawn SolomonTrade RoutesVictor L. MoteTrade Statutes of 1653 and 1667 Jarmo T. KotilaineTrade Unions Carol ClarkTranscaucasian Federations Stephen JonesTrans-Dniester Republic John GledhillTransition Economies Marie LavigneTrans-Siberian Railway Victor L. MoteTriandafillov, Viktor Kiriakovich James J. SchneiderTrinity St. Sergius Monastery David B. MillerTrotsky, Leon Davidovich Robert V. DanielsTrusts, SovietJames R. MillarTsarskoye Selo Anna Petrova Ilya VinkovetskyTsar, TsarinaAnn E. RobertsonTsiolkovsky, Konstantin Eduardovich Albert L. WeeksTsushima, Battle of Norman E. SaulTsvetaeva, Marina Ivanovna Diana SenechalTugan-Baranovsky, Mikhail Ivanovich Vincent BarnettTukhachevsky, Mikhail Nikolayevich Sally W. StoeckerTupolev, Andrei Nikolayevich Sally W. StoeckerTurgenev, Ivan Sergeyevich Michael A. DennerTurkestanSeymour BeckerTurkey, Relations with Robert O. FreedmanTurkmenistan and Turkmen Roger KangasxlviLIST OFARTICLESTur, YevgeniaJehanne M. GheithTuva and Tuvinians Johanna GranvilleTwenty-Five Thousanders Kate TranschelTyutchev, Fyodor Ivanovich Nicholas V. RiasanovskyU-2 Spy Plane Incident William TaubmanUdmurtsRein TaageperaUezdNick BaronUgra River, Battle of Mikhail M. KromUkazLindsey HughesUkraine and Ukrainians Serhy YekelchykUniate ChurchSerhy YekelchykUnion of Right Forces Nikolai PetrovUnion of Sovereign States Ann E. RobertsonUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics Archie BrownUnion of Soviet Writers Brian KassofUnion of Struggle for the Emancipation of Labor Reginald E. ZelnikUnion TreatyRoman SolchanykUnited NationsHarold J. GoldbergUnited Opposition Kate TranschelUnited States, Relations with Norman E. SaulUnity (Medved) Party Peter RutlandUniversitiesAlexander VucinichUnkiar Skelessi, Treaty of Nikolas GvosdevUshakov, Simon Fyodorovich A. Dean McKenzieUstinov, Dmitry Fedorovich Jacob W. KippUvarov, Sergei Semenovich Cynthia Hyla WhittakerUzbekistan and Uzbeks Roger KangasValue Subtraction Susan J. LinzVarennikov, Valentin Ivanovich Jacob W. KippVarga, Eugene Samuilovich Robert W. CampbellVasilevsky, Alexander Mikhailovich Johanna GranvilleVavilov, Nikolai Ivanovich Yvonne HowellVecheMichael C. PaulVekhiGary ThurstonVerbitskaya, Anastasia Alexeyevna Charlotte RosenthalVienna, Congress ofDavid M. GoldfrankVietnam, Relations with Stephen J. MorrisVikingsHeidi M. ShermanVilniusAlfred Erich SennVirgin Lands Program D. Gale JohnsonVirtual Economy Susan J. LinzVladimir Monomakh Martin DimnikVladimir, St.Francis ButlerVlasov MovementCatherine AndreyevxlviiLIST OF ARTICLESVodkaKate TranschelVolkogonov, Dmitry Antonovich Bruce W. MenningVolsky, Arkady Ivanovich Eric LohrVorontsov, Mikhail Semenovich Anthony RhinelanderVorontsov-Dashkov, Illarion Ivanovich Ronald Grigor SunyVoroshilov, Kliment Efremovich Bruce W. MenningVotchinaMikhail M. KromVoyevodaBrian DaviesVoznesensky, Nikolai Alexeyevich Mark HarrisonVsevolod IMartin DimnikVsevolod IIIMartin DimnikVyborg Manifesto Oleg BudnitskiiVyshinsky, Andrei Yanuarievich Peter H. Solomon Jr.Vyshnegradsky, Ivan Alexeyevich Boris N. MironovVysotsky, Vladimir Semyonovich Gerald SmithWages, SovietLewis H. SiegelbaumWar Communism Mark HarrisonWar EconomyMark HarrisonWar of the Third Coalition Norman E. SaulWarsaw Treaty Organization Andrew A. MichtaWesternizersBoris N. MironovWhat Is to Be Done?David K. McQuilkinWhite ArmyMary R. HabeckWhite Sea CanalCynthia A. RuderWinius, Andries Dionyszoon Jarmo T. KotilaineWinter PalaceWilliam Craft BrumfieldWitchcraftRoman K. KovalevWitte, Sergei Yulievich Boris N. MironovWomen of Russia Bloc Nikolai PetrovWorkersReginald E. ZelnikWorkers’ ControlJohn M. ThompsonWorkers’ Opposition Barbara AllenWorld Revolution William J. ChaseWorld War IDavid R. JonesWorld War IIMark HarrisonWrangel, Peter Nikolayevich Jonathan D. SmeleYablokoPeter RutlandYagoda, Genrikh Grigorevich Michael ParrishYakovlev, Alexander Nikolayevich Jonathan HarrisYalta ConferenceJoseph L. NogeeYanayev, Gennady Ivanovich Ann E. RobertsonYarlykDonald OstrowskiYaropolk IMartin DimnikYaroslav Vladimirovich Martin DimnikxlviiiLIST OF ARTICLESYaroslav Vsevolodovich Martin DimnikYaroslav Yaroslavich Martin DimnikYavlinsky, Grigory Alexeyevich Peter RutlandYazov, Dmitry Timofeyevich Jacob W. KippYeltsin, Boris Nikolayevich Ann E. RobertsonYermak Timofeyevich Maureen PerrieYesenin, Sergei Alexandrovich Brian KassofYevtushenko, Yevgeny Alexandrovich Gerald SmithYezhov, Nikolai Ivanovich Marc JansenYudenich, Nikolai Nikolayevich Jonathan D. SmeleYugoslavia, Relations with Richard FruchtYuri Danilovich Martin DimnikYuri Vladimirovich Martin DimnikYuri Vsevolodovich Martin DimnikZadonshchinaNorman W. InghamZagotovkaRobert C. StuartZaslavskaya, Tatiana Ivanovna Christopher WilliamsZasulich, Vera Ivanovna Michael EllmanZealots of PietyCathy J. PotterZemstvoOleg BudnitskiiZero-OptionMatthew O’GaraZhdanov, Andrei Alexandrovich Werner G. HahnZhelyabov, Andrei Ivanovich Oleg BudnitskiiZhenotdelElizabeth A. WoodZhensovetyMary BuckleyZhirinovsky, Vladimir Volfovich Jacob W. KippZhordania, Noe Nikolayevich Ronald Grigor SunyZhukov, Georgy Konstantinovich David GlantzZhukovsky, Nikolai Yegorovich Albert L. WeeksZinoviev, Grigory Yevseyevich Nick BaronZinoviev Letter Nick BaronZubatov, Sergei Vasilievich Jonathan W. DalyZyuganov, Gennady Andreyevich Luke March

Encyclopedia of Russian History James R. Millar © 2004 by Macmillan Reference Winston Churchill’s well-known description of Russia as a “riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma” has been widely quoted because it has seemed so apt to Western observers. The Cyrillic alphabet appears mysterious to the uninitiated, as does the odd system of dual dates for key historical events. Russia is huge and geographically remote, with over one hundred ethnic groups and as many languages. Historically, Russia stood on the margin of Europe proper, and Russian society experienced the Renaissance and the Reformation, which shaped modern Europe, only partially and belatedly.Physical distance and prolonged isolation from Europe would be sufficient to enhance and promote a distinctive Russian culture. Russians have themselves debated whether they are more European, or more Asian, or instead a unique Slavic civilization т-» r-» i-» i-? л ^-» i-» destined to provide the world with a “third” way. PREFACE Nikolai Gogol, one of Russia’s earliest and most original writers, expressed this messianic view in his novel Dead Souls, where he offered a speeding troika, a carriage drawn by three horses, as a metaphor for Russia:Russia, are you not speeding along like a fiery matchless troika? Beneath you the road is smoke, the bridges thunder, and everything is left far behind. At your passage the onlooker stops amazed as by a divine miracle. . . . Russia, where are you flying? Answer me! There is no answer. The bells are tinkling and filling the air with their wonderful pealing; the air is torn and thundering as it turns to wind; everything on earth comes flying past and, looking askance at her, other peoples and states move aside and make way.The Encyclopedia of Russian History is designed to help dispel the mystery of Russia. It is the first encyclopedia in the English language to comprehend the entirety of Russian history, from ancient Rus to the most recent events in post-Soviet Russia. It is not aimed primarily at specialists in the area but at general readers, students, and scholars who are curious about Russia, have historical events, dates, and persons they wish to explore or papers to write on the widely varying topics and individuals contained herein. Contributors include top scholars in history, Russian studies, military history, economics, social science, literature, philosophy, music, and art history. The 1,500 entries have been composed by over 500 scholars from 16 countries. All were instructed to “historize” their entries, thereby placing them in the larger context of Russian history. Each entry is signed and feaviitures carefully chosen cross references to related entries as well as a bibliography of print and Internet sources as suggested additional readings. The four volumes contain over 300 black and white maps and photographs illustrating the text, and each volume contains color inserts portraying the beauty and scope of Russian peoples, art, and architecture, as well as important military and political pictorials. Entries are arranged alphabetically, and the first volume includes a topical outline that organizes articles by broad categories, thereby offering teachers and students alike an informed map of Russian history. A comprehensive subject index offers yet another entry point for the set, encouraging readers to explore the four volumes in greater depth.The encyclopedia is the product of recent scholarship. Russian studies began as a significant field of study in the United States and Europe only during the Soviet era. Although a small number of scholars were active before World War II, particularly in England, the field began to grow in the United States with the onset of the Cold War in the late 1940s. When the Soviet Union launched the first earth satellite, Sputnik, in 1957, a concern for national security became a driving force for development of Russian area studies. All fields grew especially rapidly in the 1960s and 1970s, for it was recognized that study of the contemporary Soviet social system would require in-depth knowledge of the language, history, and culture of Russia. In the United States, for example, both the federal government and private foundations such as the Ford Foundation and the Carnegie Endowment funded graduate Russian studies on an almost “crash” basis. Whereas the Russian Institute of Columbia University and the Russian Research Center at Harvard dominated the field initially, by the end of the 1960s all major research institutions had Russian studies programs and were producing new Ph.D.s in the field. In fact, most of the scholars who have ever received Ph.D.s in the various fields of Russian history, social science, arts, and so forth, are still active scholars. The field of Russian-Soviet studies now has better coverage and higher quality than ever. The 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union ended the ideological constraints that communism had placed on scholarly publication, allowing scholarship to blossom in post-Soviet Russia as well. Researchers now have unprecedented access to archival and other historical materials-and to the Russian people as well. The editors and I have been fortunate, therefore, to be able to select as our contributors-the most outstanding scholars not only in the United States, but also in Britain, Europe, and Russia. Twenty years ago it would not have been possible to produce such a balanced, high quality, and comprehensive encyclopedia. The last five decades or so of intensive scholarship have greatly increased our knowledge and understanding of Russian history.As one views the length and breadth of the Russian historical experience certain continuities and recurring patterns stand out. Autocracy, for example, has ancient and strong roots in Russian history. For most of its history, Russia was led by all-powerful tsars, such as Peter the Great or Nicholas I, who served willingly as autocrats, seemingly conscious of the difficulties inherent in ruling so large and diverse a country. Even those tsars who sought to modify the autocracy, such as Alexander II, who emancipated the serfs, reversed course when confronted with revolutionary or nihilist opponents. Soviet communism lapsed into autocracy under Josef Stalin, who was perhaps the most complete autocrat since Peter the Great. More recently, Russian President, Vladimir Putin, appears to be tolerating a drift back toward autocracy in reaction to the democratic impulses of Mikhail Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin. He seems to relish comparison of his rule to that of Peter the Great.With the exception of the years under Soviet communism, Orthodoxy has been autocracy’s twin. Historically, the Russian Orthodox Church has successfully resisted attempts to separate church and state and has offered support and justification for autocracy in return. Consequently, the church and state have not welcomed religious diversity or promoted tolerance. Judaism, Catholicism, and other Christian denominations, Islam, and other religious faiths have suffered persecution and restrictions over the years. The Soviet era differed only in than all religions were persecuted in the name of official atheism. The long-term trend has apparently reasserted itself as the growing strength of the Russian Orthodox Church in the post-Soviet years has featured renewed attempts to exclude religious competition.Territorial expansion has characterized the development of Russia from the earliest days, usually through warfare and hostile partitions. The Great Northern War brought Russia to the Baltic coast, while the wars of the nineteenth century expanded Russia’s power into Central Asia. Expanviiision under the tsars included annexing territories occupied by settled peoples, as in Ukraine, Poland, and Finland, and also by nomadic tribes, as in Central Asia, and the Caucuses. The outcome of World War II extended Moscow’s reach into Eastern Europe, and during the Cold War Russia supported regimes in Afghanistan, Cuba, and insurgent movements in Central America and Africa.The process of empire-building brought more than 120 ethnic and national groups under Russian rule. It was a costly exercise requiring a large standing army. Russification versus promoting local languages and cultures in these territories was a recurring issue under tsars and commissars alike, and it remains an issue today in the Russian Federation. The collapse first of the Soviet empire in East-Central Europe in 1988-1989 and then of the USSR itself in 1991 caused an equivalent contraction in Moscow’s power and undermined the economy as well. Consequently, although Russia’s leaders have sought to maintain and even increase influence in what only Russians call the “near abroad,” that is the former republics of the USSR, the empire has shrunk to its smallest extent since the eighteenth century, and the Russia Federation’s influence in its former republics, not to mention Eastern and Central Europe, has been severely constrained by a lack of funds as well as by local nationalist feelings.Successful modernization of Europe has been viewed by Russians as either a possible model for Russia’s development or as a threat to her distinctive, peculiar social, political and economic institutions. From Russia’s vantagepoint on the periphery of Europe, to modernize has meant to Westernize, with all the political and economic baggage that that implies. Periodically, Russia’s leaders have opened the “door” to Europe, as Peter the Great put it, only to have it closed or restricted by those who have sought to maintain and foster Russia’s unique civilization and its messianic mission in world history. In one form or another there has been a recurring struggle since the time of Peter the Great between the Slavophiles and the Westernizers, and this was even true during the Soviet era. Lenin and Trotsky and the Old Bolsheviks thought they were opening Russia to a global communist system. Stalin closed it tightly and created an autarkic economy. Nikita Khrushchev, Gorbachev, and Yeltsin opened Russia once again to the West, ultimately with catastrophic consequences for the empire. It has been difficult, however, to overcome the pull of the “Russian idea,” and post-Soviet development policies have been undercut by an ambiguous commitment to democratization and marketiza-tion.These issues, autocracy, Orthodoxy, territorial expansionism, modernization, and cultural uniqueness, have appeared, disappeared, and reappeared throughout Russian history. Western and Russian historians have argued at length about the strength, significance, and permanence of these themes, and the articles contained in this encyclopedia explore these issues as impartially and objectively as possible.There is no question, however, about the unique, unparalleled contributions of Russian culture to art, music, literature, philosophy, and science. Where would we be without Glinka, Mussorgsky, Tchaikovsky, Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Chekhov, Rublev, Mendeleyev, Sakharov and the many, many other artists, thinkers, and scientists that Russia’s citizens of all nationalities have produced? The editors and I hope that the reader will use this encyclopedia to sample the richness of Russian history and be induced to explore Russian culture in depth.STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF THE ENCYCLOPEDIA PROJECT When Macmillan Reference USA approached me seeking an editor in chief for a projected Encyclopedia of Russian History, I realized that if I could persuade the best scholars in the field to serve as Associate Editors and on an Editorial Board, and if we could persuade other top scholars to write entries, the experience would be educational and highly worthwhile. I also realized that it would necessarily be a “labor of love” for all involved. Participating scholars would have to believe in the intrinsic value of the project. I first approached Dr. Ann Robertson, who was serving as Managing Editor of my journal, Problems of Post-Communism, to see whether she would be willing to contribute her outstanding editorial skills as well as her expertise in political science to work closely with me as Senior Associate Editor on the encyclopedia. Next I approached Professor Nicholas Riasanovsky of University of California at Berkeley. As the leading historian of Russia and director of innumerable Ph.D. dissertations in the field, Professor Riasanovsky represented the keystone in the construction of the editorial committee. I knew that his name would assure other scholars of the serious academic nature of the project. I was soon able to recruit an ixawesome set of associate editors: Daniel Kaiser of Grinnell College, Louise McReynolds of the University of Hawaii at Manoa, Donald Raleigh of the University of North Carolina, and Ronald Suny of the University of Chicago. With their assistance we recruited an equally outstanding Advisory Board.Below are very brief biographies of the distinguished members on the Editorial Board:Editor in Chief James R. Millar (Ph.D. Cornell University) is professor of economics and international affairs at the Institute for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies at the George Washington University. His primary areas of research are Soviet/Russian economic history and economics of the transition.Daniel H. Kaiser (Ph.D. University of Chicago) is professor of history at Grinnell College in Iowa. His academic specialty is history and family life in early modern Russia.Louise McReynolds (Ph.D. University of Chicago) is professor of history at the University of Hawaii. She specializes in Russian intellectual history and cultural studies.Donald J. Raleigh (Ph.D. Indiana University) is professor of history at the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. His research specialization is twentieth-century Russian and Soviet history and the Russian civil war.Nicholas V. Riasanovsky (D.Phil. Oxford University) is professor emeritus of history at the University of California at Berkeley. He is the author of A History of Russia (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963, sixth edition, 1999).Ann E. Robertson (Ph.D. George Washington University) is managing editor of the journal Problems of Post-Communism, National Council for Eurasian and East European Research. She specializes in post-Soviet political science.Ronald Grigor Suny (Ph.D. Columbia University, 1968) is professor of political science at the University of Chicago. His research specialty is comparative politics and Russian history with special attention to non-Russian peoples.The editorial board assembled at George Washington University in January 2001 to plan the encyclopedia. The topics we identified eventually totaled 1,500 entries. We decided to create basic article categories in an attempt to capture the range and scope of over 1,000 years of Russian history and culture. As a result, articles in the Encyclopedia describe: Historical Events Documents, Declarations, or Treaties Military Campaigns or Battles The Arts, Literature, Philosophy, or Science Economic Developments or Strategies Ethnic Groups Geographical Regions Political or Territorial Units (Cities, Regions, Government Ministries) Countries Prominent in Russian History Government Policies or Programs Organizations, Movements, or Political Parties Influential Individuals Basic Terms or PhrasesOver the next few months members of the editorial board wrote scope statements and identified word lengths (ranging from 250 to 5,000 words) for the articles in their segment of the table of contents. Our goal was to produce four volumes and one million words, a quota we easily could have exceeded. After authors were commissioned and assignments completed, each article was read by the appropriate member of the Editorial Board and by the Editor in Chief for final approval. Macmillan Reference staff has edited the entries for clarity, consistency, and style.A number of transliteration systems exist for presenting Russian proper names and terms in the English language. As the main audience for the encyclopedia is not expected to be familiar with the Russian language, strict adherence to any one system could appear artificial and intimidating. The editors decided to use standard American spelling of well-known proper names as they would appear in the New York Times (e.g., Boris Yeltsin, not Boris El’tsin). In all other cases transliterations conform to the conventions established by the U.S. Board on Geographic Names. Within this system we made a few exceptions: ligatures, soft signs, and hard signs are omitted; names ending in “-ii,” “-yi,” or “-yy” are shortened to “-y”; and names of tsars and saints have been Anglicized, as Peter the Great and Saint Basil, not Petr and Vasily. The editors believe that this modified system for transliteration will be more readable and understandable than the alternatives.Dates in Russian history can be somewhat confusing because tsarist Russia continued to use “Old Style” (O.S.) dates, based on the Julian calendar, up to the 1917 Revolution. In 1917 the Julian calenxdar was 13 days behind the Gregorian, which had been used in Europe since 1582. The Bolsheviks adopted New Style (N.S.) dates. Thus, the October 25th Revolution was celebrated on November 7th.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSI want to thank James Goldgeier, director of the Institute for European, Russian and Eurasian Studies of The George Washington University for institutional support and personal encouragement. The staff of the Institute, especially Vedrana Hadzialic and Jennifer Sieck, have efficiently and cheerfully helped advance this project in many ways.Leah Markowitz ably served as research assistant in the early phases of the project. Jill Lectka, Director of Publishing Operations and Joe Clements, Senior Editor for Macmillan Reference USA, and their staff, have simply been superb in providing the managerial, editorial, and promotional support for the creation of the Encyclopedia of Russian History. They have been tactful but persistent in encouraging the editors and contributors to meet deadlines and make any necessary editorial changes. Brian Kinsey initiated the project in 2001 and Shawn Corridor joined the editorial team in the spring of 2003 to supervise final author corrections and entry preparation. We have been fortunate to have such outstanding professionals working with us.JAMES R. MILLAR EDITOR IN CHIEFAbkhaziansB. George HewittAbortion PolicySharon A. KowalskyAcademy of ArtsRosalind P. BlakesleyAcademy of SciencesAlexander VucinichAdministration for Organized Recruitment Michael EllmanAdministration, Military David R. JonesAdmiraltyWilliam Craft BrumfieldAdygeSeteney ShamiAdzhubei, Alexei Ivanovich William TaubmanAeroflotPaul R. GregoryAfghanistan, Relations with Roger KangasAganbegyan, Abel Gezevich Michael EllmanAgitpropK. Andrea RusnockAgrarian Party of Russia Nikolai PetrovAgrarian Reforms Robert C. StuartAgricultureRobert C. StuartAigun, Treaty of Steven I. LevineAjarsB. George HewittAkayev, Askar Akayevich Paul J. KubicekAkhmatova, Anna Andreyevna Diana SenechalAkhromeyev, Sergei Fyodorovich Jacob W. KippAkhundov, Mirza Fath Ali Gregory TwymanLIST OF ARTICLESxvLIST OF ARTICLESAkkerman, Convention of Bruce W. MenningAksakov, Ivan Sergeyevich Abbott GleasonAksakov, Konstantin Sergeyevich Abbott GleasonAlash OrdaDavid R. JonesAlaskaJohanna GranvilleAlbanians, Caucasian Robert H. HewsenAlcoholismKate TranschelAlcohol Monopoly Patricia HerlihyAlexander IJean K. BergerAlexander IIStephen M. NorrisAlexander IIIPeter WaldronAlexander Mikhailovich Martin DimnikAlexander Yaroslavich Martin DimnikAlexandra Fedorovna Nicholas GansonAlexandrov, Grigory Alexandrovich Denise J. YoungbloodAlexei I, Patriarch Nathaniel DavisAlexei II, PatriarchNikolas K. GvosdevAlexei Mikhailovich Philip LongworthAlexei Nikolayevich Nicholas GansonAlexei PetrovichLindsey HughesAlexeyev, Mikhail Vasilievich Oleg R. AirapetovAliyev, HeidarGerard J. LibaridianAllied Intervention Norman E. SaulAlliluyeva, Svetlana Iosifovna Johanna GranvilleAltaiVictor L. MoteAltynRoman K. KovalevAmalrik, Andrei Alexeyevich Peter RollbergAmerican Relief Administration William Benton WhisenhuntAnarchismCarl A. LindenAndrei Alexandrovich Martin DimnikAndrei Yaroslavich Martin DimnikAndrei Yurevich Martin DimnikAndreyev, Leonid Nikolayevich Peter RollbergAndreyeva, Nina Alexandrovna Jonathan HarrisAndropov, Yuri Vladimirovich Marc D. ZlotnikAndrusovo, Peace of W. M. Reger IVAnna IvanovnaZhand P. ShakibiAnthony Khrapovitsky, Metropolitan Robert L. NicholsAnthony Vadkovsky, Metropolitan Robert L. NicholsAnti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Raymond L. GarthoffAnti-Comintern Pact Harold J. GoldbergAnti-Party GroupWilliam TaubmanAntonov UprisingA. Delano DuGarmAppanage EraElvira M. WilburxviLIST OFARTICLESApparatJames R. MillarApril ThesesRex A. WadeArchitectureWilliam Craft BrumfieldArchivesPatricia Kennedy GrimstedArmand, InessaElizabeth A. WoodArmenia and Armenians George A. BournoutianArmenian Apostolic Church Paul CregoArmoryLindsey HughesArms ControlWalter C. Clemens Jr.ArtekJonathan D. WallaceArticle 6 of 1977 Constitution Gordon B. SmithAssembly of the Land Richard HellieAssortment Plans Susan J. LinzAstrakhan, Khanate of Roman K. KovalevAtomic EnergyPaul R. JosephsonAugust 1991 Putsch Ann E. RobertsonAusterlitz, Battle ofFrederick W. KaganAustria, Relations with Hugh LeCaine AgnewAutocracyZhand P. ShakibiAvarsPaul CregoAviationAlbert L. WeeksAvvakum Petrovich Cathy J. PotterAzerbaijan and Azeris Gregory TwymanBabel, Isaac Emmanuyelovich Milton EhreBabi BuntyBrian KassofBaikal-Amur Magistral Railway Christopher J. WardBakatin, Vadim Viktorovich Jacob W. KippBakhtin, Mikhail Mikhailovich Gary Saul MorsonBakuAudrey AltstadtBakunin, Mikhail Alexandrovich Albert L. WeeksBalaklava, Battle of Andrew LambertBalalaikaSerge RogosinBalkan WarsRichard FruchtBalkarsPaul CregoBalletTim SchollBaltic FleetJohanna GranvilleBanking System, Soviet Pekka SutelaBanking System, Tsarist Martin C. SpechlerBanyaRoman K. KovalevBarannikov, Viktor Pavlovich Jacob W. KippBarone, EnricoRichard E. EricsonBarshchinaElvira M. WilburBarsov, Alexander Alexandrovich Michael EllmanBaryatinsky, Alexander Ivanovich Ronald Grigor SunyxviiLIST OF ARTICLESBashkortostan and Bashkirs Daniel E. SchaferBasil IMikhail M. KromBasil IIMikhail M. KromBasil IIIMikhail M. KromBasmachisDaniel E. SchaferBatuDonald OstrowskiBauer, Yevgeny Frantsevich Joan NeubergerBazarov, Vladimir Alexandrovich Vincent BarnettBeard TaxBrian BoeckBednyakiMartin C. SpechlerBelarus and Belarusians David M. GoldfrankBelinsky, Vissarion Grigorievich Peter RollbergBelovezh Accords Paul J. KubicekBely, AndreiDiana SenechalBerdyayev, Nikolai Alexandrovich Bernice Glatzer RosenthalBeria, Lavrenti Pavlovichv Amy KnightBering, Vitus Jonassen Ilya VinkovetskyBerlin BlockadeThomas ParrishBerlin, Congress ofDavid M. GoldfrankBerlin, Convention of Nikolas GvosdevBeschestieNancy Shields KollmannBessarabiaJohn GledhillBestuzhev-Ryumin, Alexei Petrovich John T. AlexanderBirchbark Charters Simon FranklinBirobidzhanRobert WeinbergBiron, Ernst Johann John T. AlexanderBlack EarthVictor L. MoteBlack Hundred Jack LangerBlack Market Julie HesslerBlack RepartitionA. Delano DuGarmBlack Sea FleetMichael ParrishBlatMartin C. SpechlerBloch, JanJacob W. KippBlok, Alexander Alexandrovich Diana SenechalBloody SundayWalter SablinskyBobrikov, Nikolai Ivanovich Tuomo PolvinenBolotnikov, Ivan Isayevich Chester DunningBolshevismRobert C. WilliamsBolshoi Theater Tim SchollBonner, Yelena Georgievna Lisa A. KirschenbaumBook of Degrees Gail LenhoffBoretskaya, Marfa Ivanovna Gail LenhoffBorodino, Battle ofFrederick W. KaganBorotbistySerhy YekelchykxviiiLIST OF ARTICLESBoyarSergei BogatyrevBoyar DumaSergei BogatyrevBrazauskas, Algirdas Alfred Erich SennBrest-Litovsk Peace Sally A. BonieceBrezhnev Doctrine Kieran WilliamsBrezhnev, Leonid IlichRichard D. Anderson Jr.Brodsky, Joseph Alexandrovich Maria EitinguinaBruce, James David Johanna GranvilleBrusilov, Alexei Alexeyevich Bruce W. MenningBryusov, Valery Yakovlevich Mark KonecnyBucharest, Treaty of Radu R. FlorescuBudenny, Semeon Mikhailovich Jonathan D. SmeleBukharaSeymour BeckerBukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich Carol Gayle William MoskoffBukovinaJohn GledhillBulgakov, Mikhail Afanasievich Diana SenechalBulgakov, Sergei Nikolayevich Catherine EvtuhovBulganin, Nikolai Alexandrovich Roger D. MarkwickBulgariansJohanna GranvilleBulgaria, Relations with Kyril DrezovBund, JewishJohn D. KlierBunin, Ivan Alexeyevich Milton EhreBureaucracy, Economic Paul R. GregoryBuryatsJohanna GranvilleButashevich-Petrashevsky, Mikhail Vasilievich Dmitri GlinskiBylinaNorman W. InghamByzantium, Influence of Simon FranklinCabaretJohanna GranvilleCabinet of Ministers, Imperial John M. ThompsonCabinet of Ministers, Soviet Gerald M. EasterCadres PolicyChristopher WilliamsCalendarAnn E. RobertsonCantonistsJohn D. KlierCapitalismThomas C. OwenCarpatho-RusynsPaul Robert MagocsiCathedral of Christ the Savior Nicholas GansonCathedral of St. Basil Lindsey HughesCathedral of St. Sophia, Kiev William Craft BrumfieldCathedral of St. Sophia, Novgorod William Craft BrumfieldCathedral of the Archangel Lindsey HughesCathedral of the Dormition Lindsey HughesCatherine ILindsey HughesCatherine IIJohn T. AlexanderCatholicismGregory L. FreezexixLIST OF ARTICLESCaucasian WarsRobert F. BaumannCaucasusPaul CregoCaves Monastery David K. PrestelCaviarVictor L. MoteCensorshipCharles A. RuudCentral AsiaRoger KangasCentral Bank of Russia Juliet JohnsonCentral CommitteeJohanna GranvilleCentral Control Commission Nick BaronCentral Statistical Agency Steven RosefieldeChaadayev, Peter Yakovlevich Raymond T. McNallyChagall, MarcMark KonecnyChancellery System Peter B. BrownChapayev, Vasily Ivanovich Denise J. YoungbloodChapbook Literature E. Anthony SwiftCharskaya, Lydia Alexeyevna Elizabeth Jones HemenwayCharter of the Cities George E. MunroCharter of the Nobility Nickolas LupininChastushkaRoman K. KovalevChayanov, Alexander Vasilievich Stephan MerlChebrikov, Viktor Mikhailovich Amy KnightChechnya and Chechens Johanna NicholsChekhov, Anton Pavlovich Andrew R. DurkinCherkessSeteney ShamiChernenko, Konstantin Ustinovich Marc D. ZlotnikChernobylDavid R. MarplesChernomyrdin, Viktor Stepanovich Peter ReddawayChernov, Viktor Mikhailovich Sarah BadcockChernuhkaEliot BorensteinChernyshev, Alexander Ivanovich Frederick W. KaganChernyshevsky, Nikolai Gavrilovich Victoria KhitererChervonetsJuliet JohnsonChesme, Battle of John C. K. DalyChicherin, Georgy Vasilievich Teddy J. UldricksChina, Relations with Steven I. LevineChirikov, Alexei Ilich John McCannonChkalov, Valery Pavlovich John McCannonChkheidze, Nikolai Semenovich Stephen JonesChristianizationDonald OstrowskiChronicle of Current Events Marshall S. ShatzChronicle of Human Rights in the USSR Marshall S. ShatzChroniclesGail LenhoffChubais, Anatoly Borisovich Stefan HedlundChuikov, Vasily Ivanovich David M. GlantzxxLIST OF ARTICLESChukchiGail A. FondahlChukovskaya, Lydia Korneyevna Jacqueline M. OlichChukovsky, Kornei Ivanovich Elizabeth Jones HemenwayChurch CouncilGeorge T. KosarChurch Council, Hundred Chapters Debra A. CoulterChuvashDaniel E. SchaferCimmeriansRoman K. KovalevCircusR?sa Magn?sd?ttirCivic UnionMichael EllmanCivil War of 1425-1450 Richard HellieCivil War of 1917-1922 Donald J. RaleighClass SystemLewis H. SiegelbaumClimateVictor L. MoteCold WarMark KramerCollective FarmRobert C. StuartCollective Responsibility Brian BoeckCollectivization of Agriculture Robert C. StuartColonial Expansion Richard HellieColonialismDaniel BrowerCommand Administrative Economy Richard E. Ericson IIICommanding Heights of the Economy Martin C. SpechlerCommissarSharon A. KowalskyCommittee for the Operational Management of the National Economy Peter RutlandCommittee of Soldiers’ Mothers Jacob W. KippCommittees of the Village Poor A. Delano DuGarmCommonwealth of Independent States Paul J. KubicekCommunismJohn M. ThompsonCommunist AcademyDavid BrandenbergerCommunist BlocYaroslav BilinskyCommunist Information Bureau Gale StokesCommunist International William J. ChaseCommunist Party of the Russian Federation Luke MarchCommunist Party of the Soviet Union Graeme GillCommunist Youth Organizations Anne E. GorsuchCongress of People’s Deputies Thomas F. RemingtonCongress of Russian Communities Nikolai PetrovConsistoryVera ShevzovConstituent Assembly Michael MelanconConstitutional Court Gordon B. SmithConstitutional Democratic Party Melissa K. StockdaleConstitution of 1918 Albert L. WeeksConstitution of 1936 Karen PetroneConstitution of 1977 Peter B. MaggsConstitution of 1993 Gordon B. SmithxxiLIST OF ARTICLESConstructivismHugh D. Hudson Jr.Control FiguresMartin C. SpechlerConventional Forces in Europe Treaty Johanna GranvilleCooperatives, Law on Carol Gayle William MoskoffCooperative Societies William Moskoff Carol GayleCopper RiotsJarmo T. KotilaineCorporal Punishment Boris N. MironovCorporation, Russian Thomas C. OwenCosmopolitanism Karl D. QuallsCossacksBruce W. MenningCouncil for Mutual Economic Assistance Daniel R. KazmerCouncil of Ministers, Soviet Derek WatsonCounterreformsDaniel OrlovskyCountry EstatesPriscilla RooseveltCourt, High Arbitration Peter B. MaggsCourt, SupremePeter B. MaggsCrimeaTaras KuzioCrimean Khanate Alan FisherCrimean Tatars Alan FisherCrimean WarDavid M. GoldfrankCrony Capitalism Stefan HedlundCuban Missile Crisis Hugh PhillipsCuba, Relations with Cole BlasierCult of Personality Karen PetroneCultural Revolution Sheila Fitzpatrick Benjamin ZajicekCustine, Astolphe Louis Leonor Peter RollbergCustoms BooksJarmo T. KotilaineCyril and Methodius Society Serhy YekelchykCyrillic AlphabetAnn E. RobertsonCyril of TurovNorman W. InghamCzartoryski, Adam Jerzy Johanna GranvilleCzechoslovakia, Invasion of Kieran WilliamsCzechoslovakia, Relations with Ann E. RobertsonDagestanPaul CregoDaniel, Metropolitan David M. GoldfrankDaniel, Yuli Markovich John McCannonDanilevsky, Nikolai Yakovlevich Albert L. WeeksDarginsPaul CregoDashkova, Yekaterina Romanovna Michelle Lamarche MarreseDashnaktsutiunGerard J. LibaridianDecembrist Movement and Rebellion Elena ZemskovaDecree on LandStephen K. WegrenDedovshchinaJonathan WeilerxxiiLIST OFARTICLESDefectors, Soviet Era Amy KnightDemocratic Party Nikolai PetrovDemocratic Russia Nikolai PetrovDemocratic Union Nikolai PetrovDemocratization Dmitri GlinskiDemographyCynthia J. BuckleyDengaRoman K. KovalevDenikin, Anton Ivanovich Anatol ShmelevDenmark, Relations with Jarmo T. KotilaineDeportations Eric LohrDerzhavin, Gavryl Romanovich Johanna GranvilleDe-Stalinization Graeme GillD?tenteMarie-Pierre ReyDeveloped SocialismVladimir E. ShlapentokhDezhnev, Semen Ivanovich John McCannonDiagilev, Sergei Pavlovich Tim SchollDialectical Materialism Alfred B. Evans Jr.Dictatorship of the Proletariat Ray TarasDioceseCathy J. PotterDionisyA. Dean McKenzieDisenfranchized Persons Golfo AlexopoulosDissident Movement Yaroslav BilinskyDmitry Alexandrovich Martin DimnikDmitry, FalseChester DunningDmitry Mikhailovich Martin DimnikDmitry of Uglich Brian BoeckDoctors’ PlotDavid BrandenbergerDolgansJohanna GranvilleDomostroiCarolyn Johnston PouncyDonation BooksLudwig SteindorffDonskoy, Dmitry Ivanovich Gail LenhoffDostoyevsky, Fyodor Mikhailovich Peter RollbergDudayev, Dzhokhar Dmitri GlinskiDugin, Alexander Gelevich Jacob W. KippDumaJohn M. ThompsonDunayevsky, Isaak Osipovich Richard StitesDunganJohanna GranvilleDurova, Nadezhda Andreyevna Mary ZirinDvoeverieStella RockDvorianstvoRichard HellieDyachenko, Tatiana Borisovna Peter ReddawayDyakPeter B. BrownDzerzhinsky, Felix Edmundovich Robert E. BlobaumEconomic Growth, Extensive Martin C. SpechlerxxiiiLIST OF ARTICLESEconomic Growth, Imperial Paul R. GregoryEconomic Growth, Intensive Steven RosefieldeEconomic Growth, Soviet Gur OferEconomic Reform Commission Michael EllmanEconomismMartin C. SpechlerEconomy, Post-Soviet Paul R. GregoryEconomy, Tsarist Carol Gayle William MoskoffEdinonachalie Susan J. LinzEducationBrian KassofEhrenburg, Ilya Grigorovich John Patrick FarrellEisenstein, Sergei Mikhailovich Joan NeubergerElectoral Commission Nikolai PetrovElectricity Grid Peter RutlandElizabethJohn T. AlexanderEmancipation ActJulia UlyannikovaEmpire, USSR asZhand P. ShakibiEngels, FriedrichAlfred B. Evans Jr.Enlightenment, Impact of Olga TsapinaEnserfmentRichard HellieEnterprise, Soviet Susan J. LinzEnvironmentalism Rachel MayEpiscopate Zoe KnoxEstonia and Estonians Art LeeteEthiopian Civil War Johanna GranvilleEthnography, Russian and Soviet Nathaniel KnightEvenkiGail A. FondahlFaberg?, Peter CarlLouise McReynoldsFamily Code of 1926 Wendy GoldmanFamily Code on Marriage, the Family, and GuardianshipWendy GoldmanFamily Edict of 1944Rebecca Balmas NearyFamily Laws of 1936 Wendy GoldmanFamine of 1891-1892Richard G. Robbins Jr.Famine of 1921-1922 Mark B. TaugerFamine of 1932-1933 Mark B. TaugerFamine of 1946Nicholas GansonFar Eastern Region Gilbert RozmanFatherland-All Russia Nikolai PetrovFeast BooksLudwig SteindorffFebruary Revolution Rex A. WadeFederal AssemblyThomas F. RemingtonFederalismRoger KangasFederal Property Fund James R. MillarFederation TreatiesEdward W. WalkerFeldman, Grigory Alexandrovich Martin C. SpechlerxxivLISTOF ARTICLESFeldsherSamuel C. RamerFellow TravelersKarl E. LoewensteinFeminismLinda EdmondsonFerghana ValleyMichael RoulandFeudalismRichard HellieFilaret Drozdov, Metropolitan Robert NicholsFilaret Romanov, Patriarch Russell E. MartinFinlandPaul J. KubicekFinns and Karelians Rein TaageperaFirebirdNorman W. InghamFive-Hundred-Day Plan Robert W. CampbellFive-Year PlansHolland HunterFlorence, Council of George P. MajeskaFolklorePatricia ArantFolk MusicSusannah Lockwood SmithFondoderzhateliPaul R. GregoryFonvizin, Denis Ivanovich Johanna GranvilleFoodDarra GoldsteinForeign DebtStefan HedlundForeign TradeMartin C. SpechlerFrance, Relations with Marie-Pierre ReyFree Economic Society Carol Gayle William MoskoffFreemasonryOlga TsapinaFrench Influence in Russia Martine MespouletFrench War of 1812 Frederick W. KaganFrontier Fortifications Brian DaviesFrunze, Mikhail Vasilievich Michael ParrishFull Economic Accounting Susan J. LinzFundamental Laws of 1906 Oleg BudnitskiiFunded Commodities James R. MillarFuturismHugh D. Hudson Jr.Fyodor Alexeyevich Lindsey HughesFyodor IIChester DunningFyodor IvanovichJohanna GranvilleFyodorov, Boris Grigorievich Peter RutlandFyodorov, IvanHugh M. OlmstedGagarin, Yuri Alexeyevich Phyllis ConnGagauzMikhail GubogloGaidar, Yegor Timurovich Peter RutlandGamsakhurdia, Zviad Stephen JonesGapon, Georgy Apollonovich Walter SablinskyGaspirali, Ismail Bey Edward J. LazzeriniGatchinaWilliam Craft BrumfieldGeneral SecretaryNorma C. NoonanxxvLIST OF ARTICLESGeneticistsJames R. MillarGeneva Summit of 1985 Raymond L. GarthoffGenoa ConferenceTeddy J. UldricksGenocideGerard J. LibaridianGeographyVictor L. MoteGeorgia and Georgians Paul CregoGeorgian Orthodox Church Paul CregoGerman Democratic Republic Melissa R. JordineGerman SettlersKevin Alan BrookGermany, Relations with Melissa R. JordineGigantomaniaVictoria KhitererGinzburg, Evgenia Semenovna Alison RowleyGKOsPekka SutelaGlasnostCarl A. LindenGlavkiMartin C. SpechlerGlavlitBrian KassofGlinka, Mikhail Ivanovich Matthias StadelmannGlinskaya, Yelena Vasilyevna Isolde Thyr?tGnezdovoHeidi M. ShermanGodunov, Boris Fyodorovich Chester DunningGogol, Nikolai Vasilievich Diana SenechalGolden Age of Russian Literature Michael A. DennerGolden HordeDonald OstrowskiGold StandardJuliet JohnsonGolitsyn, Vasily Vasilievich Lindsey HughesGoncharova, Natalia Sergeyevna Jane A. SharpGoncharov, Ivan Alexandrovich Catherine O’NeilGoods FamineRobert C. StuartGorbachev, Mikhail Sergeyevich Archie BrownGorbachev, Raisa Maximovna Archie BrownGorchakov, Alexander Mikhailovich Norman E. SaulGordon, Patrick Leopold Jarmo T. KotilaineGoremykin, Ivan Longinovich John M. ThompsonGorky, Maxim Tovah YedlinGosbankJuliet JohnsonGosizdatBrian KassofGoskomstatMartine MespouletGosplanPaul R. GregoryGostiSamuel H. BaronGostinaya SotnyaJarmo T. KotilaineGosudaryev DvorSergei BogatyrevGoverning SenateZhand P. ShakibiGrain Crisis of 1928 Carol Gayle William MoskoffGrain TradeBoris N. MironovxxviLIST OF ARTICLESGrand AllianceDavid M. GlantzGrand PrinceJanet MartinGreat Britain, Relations with Johanna GranvilleGreat Northern WarPaul A. BushkovitchGreat Reforms Daniel FieldGreece, Relations with Johanna GranvilleGreeksPatricia HerlihyGreen MovementA. Delano DuGarmGriboedov, Alexander Sergeyevich Johanna GranvilleGrigorenko, Peter Grigorievich Jonathan WeilerGrishin, Viktor Vasilievich Terry D. ClarkGrivnaRoman K. KovalevGromov, Boris Vsevolodovich Jacob W. KippGromyko, Andrei Andreyevich Graeme GillGrossman, Vasily Semenovich Karl E. LoewensteinGuards, Regiments of Frederick W. KaganGuba Administrative System Brian DaviesGuberniyaNick BaronGuildsThomas C. OwenGulagDavid J. NordlanderGUMJulie HesslerGumilev, Lev Nikolayevich Jacob W. KippGumilev, Nikolai Stepanovich Brian KassofGypsyDarrell SliderGypsymaniaRichard StitesHagiography Gail LenhoffHague Peace Conferences Walter C. Clemens Jr.Hanseatic LeagueLawrence N. LangerHard Budget Constraints Susan J. LinzHayek, FriedrichRichard E. EricsonHealth Care Services, Imperial Samuel C. RamerHealth Care Services, Soviet Mark G. FieldHegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Albert L. WeeksHelsinki AccordsChristopher J. WardHerzen, Alexander Ivanovich Dmitri GlinskiHigher Party School Peter RutlandHilarion, Metropolitan David K. PrestelHis Majesty’s Own Chancery Zhand P. ShakibiHistorical SongsNorman W. InghamHistoriographyOleg BudnitskiiHoly AllianceDavid WetzelHoly SynodDebra A. CoulterHomeless ChildrenJacqueline M. OlichHrushevsky, Mikhail Sergeyevich Serhy YekelchykxxviiLIST OF ARTICLESHuman Rights Peter JuvilerHungarian Revolution Johanna GranvilleHungary, Relations with Johanna GranvilleHunsRoman K. KovalevIconsGregory L. FreezeIdealismBoris GubmanIgorMartin DimnikIlminsky, Nikolai Ivanovich Isabelle KreindlerImmigration and Emigration Eric LohrImperial Russian Geographical Society Victor L. MoteImperial Russian Technological Society Martine MespouletIndex Number Relativity Gur OferIndicative Planning Martin C. SpechlerIndustrialization Robert C. StuartIndustrialization, Rapid Gur OferIndustrialization, Soviet Paul R. GregoryInorodtsyJohn D. KlierInput-Output Analysis Steven RosefieldeInstitute of Red Professors David BrandenbergerInstruction, Legislative Commission of Catherine II Michelle DenBesteIntelligentsiaVictoria KhitererIntermediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty Walter C. Clemens Jr.International Space Station John M. LogsdonInter-Regional Deputies’ Group Peter ReddawayIran, Relations withRobert O. FreedmanIraq, Relations withRobert O. FreedmanIron CurtainKarl D. QuallsIslamAdeeb KhalidIsrael, Relations with Robert O. FreedmanItaly, Relations with J. Calvitt Clarke IIIIvan IMartin DimnikIvan IIMartin DimnikIvan IIIMikhail M. KromIvan IVSergei BogatyrevIvan VPaul A. BushkovitchIvan VILindsey HughesIvashko, Vladimir Antonovich David R. MarplesIzbaRichard HellieIzvestiyaMatthew E. LenoeIzyaslav IMartin DimnikIzyaslav Mstislavich Martin DimnikJackson-Vanik Agreement Robert O. FreedmanJadidismEdward J. LazzeriniJapan, Relations with Charles E. ZieglerxxviiiLIST OFARTICLESJassy, Treaty ofBruce W. MenningJewsJohn D. KlierJoakim, Patriarch Cathy J. PotterJob, PatriarchDebra A. CoulterJoseph of Volotsk, St. David M. GoldfrankJournalismCharles A. RuudJudaizersDavid M. GoldfrankJuly Days of 1917 Michael C. HickeyKabardiansSeteney ShamiKaganovich, Lazar Moyseyevich Kate TranschelKAL 007Timothy ThomasKaliningradRichard J. KrickusKalinin, Mikhail Ivanovich Kate TranschelKalmyksJohanna GranvilleKamenev, Lev Borisovich Michael C. HickeyKandinsky, Vassily Vassilyvich Mark KonecnyKantorovich, Leonid Vitaliyevich Martin C. SpechlerKaplan, FanyaSally A. BonieceKarachaiBrian BoeckKarakalpaksPaul J. KubicekKarakhan Declaration Teddy J. UldricksKaramzin, Nikolai Mikhailovich Andreas Sch?nleKasyanov, Mikhail Mikhailovich Peter RutlandKatkov, Mikhail Nikiforovich Victoria KhitererKatyn Forest Massacre Albert L. WeeksKaufman, Konstantin Petrovich Daniel BrowerKazakhstan and Kazakhs David R. JonesKazanDonald OstrowskiKellogg-Briand Pact Teddy J. UldricksKerensky, Alexander Fyodorovich Rex A. WadeKhabarov, Yerofei Pavlovich John McCannonKhakassJohanna GranvilleKhalkin-Gol, Battle of Mary R. HabeckKhantyArt LeeteKhasbulatov, Ruslan Imranovich Ann E. RobertsonKhazarsRoman K. KovalevKhivaDaniel BrowerKhmelnitsky, Bohdan Frank E. SysynKhomyakov, Alexei Stepanovich Abbott GleasonKhovanshchinaLindsey HughesKhozraschetSusan J. LinzKhrushchev, Nikita Sergeyevich William TaubmanKhutorWilliam Moskoff Carol GayleKievan Caves Patericon David K. PrestelxxixLIST OF ARTICLESKievan RusJanet MartinKireyevsky, Ivan Vasilievich Abbott GleasonKirill-Beloozero Monastery Robert RomanchukKiriyenko, Sergei Vladilenovich Hugh PhillipsKirov, Sergei Mironovich Paul M. HagenlohKlyuchevsky, Vasily Osipovich Boris N. MironovKokoshin, Andrei Afanasievich Jacob W. KippKolchak, Alexander Vasilievich N. G. O. PereiraKollontai, Alexandra Mikhailovna Barbara Evans ClementsKomiRein TaageperaKomuchVictor M. FicKondratiev, Nikolai Dmitrievich Vincent BarnettKonev, Ivan Stepanovich Michael ParrishKonstantin Nikolayevich Larissa ZakharovaKopeckJarmo T. KotilaineKoreansAndrei LankovKorean WarKathryn WeathersbyKorea, Relations with Andrei LankovKorenizatsyaRobert MaierKormchaya Kniga Martin DimnikKormlenieStefan HedlundKornai, JanosMartin C. SpechlerKornilov Affair Rex A. WadeKorolenko, Vladimir Galaktionovich Johanna GranvilleKorsh TheaterLouise McReynoldsKoryaksJohanna GranvilleKorzhakov, Alexander Vasilievich Peter ReddawayKosmodemyanskaya, Zoya Rosalinde SartortiKosygin, Alexei Nikolayevich Graeme GillKosygin ReformsMartin C. SpechlerKotoshikhin, Grigory Karpovich Benjamin UroffKovalev, Sergei Adamovich Peter ReddawayKovalevskaya, Sofia Vasilievna Mary ZirinKozlov, Frol Romanovich William TaubmanKozyrev, Andrei Vladimirovich Paul J. KubicekKrasnov, Pyotr Nikolayevich Jonathan D. SmeleKravchuk, Leonid Makarovich Robert S. KravchukKremlinWilliam Craft BrumfieldKremlinologyAnthony D’AgostinoKritzman, Lev Natanovich Nick BaronKronstadt UprisingA. Delano DuGarmKropotkin, Pyotr Alexeyevich John SlatterKrupskaya, Nadezhda Konstantinovna Elizabeth A. WoodKrylov, Ivan Andreyevich Louise McReynoldsxxxLIST OF ARTICLESKryuchkov, Vladimir Alexandrovich Amy KnightKuchuk Kainarji, Treaty of Norman E. SaulKulaksStephan MerlKuleshov, Lev Vladimirovich Denise J. YoungbloodKulikovo Field, Battle of Donald OstrowskiKulturnostJulia ObertreisKunayev, Dinmukhammed Akhmedovich David R. JonesKurbsky, Andrei Mikhailovich Sergei BogatyrevKurdsJohanna GranvilleKuril IslandsCharles E. ZieglerKuritsyn, Fyodor Vasilevich David M. GoldfrankKuropatkin, Alexei NikolayevichDavid Schimmelpenninck van der OyeKursk, Battle ofDavid M. GlantzKursk Submarine Disaster Jacob W. KippKustarE. Anthony SwiftKutuzov, Mikhail Ilarionovich Frederick W. KaganKuybyshev, Valerian Vladimirovich Kate TranschelKuznetsov, Nikolai Gerasimovich Michael ParrishKyrgyzstan and Kyrgyz Roger KangasLaborDavid PrettyLabor BooksRobert C. StuartLabor DayRobert C. StuartLabor Theory of Value Alfred B. Evans Jr.Lake BaikalRachel MayLand and Freedom Party Christopher WilliamsLand CaptainOleg BudnitskiiLandsbergis, Vytautas Alfred Erich SennLand Tenure, Imperial EraMichelle Lamarche MarreseLand Tenure, Soviet and Post-Soviet Stephen K. WegrenLanguage LawsVladislava ReznikLatvia and Latvians Andrejs PlakansLaw Code of 1649 Richard HellieLay of Igor’s Campaign Norman W. InghamLazarev InstituteGeorge A. BournoutianLeague of Armed Neutrality Norman E. SaulLeague of NationsTeddy J. UldricksLeague of the Militant Godless Daniel PerisLebed, Alexander Ivanovich Jacob W. KippLefortovoGeorg WurzerLeft Opposition Kate TranschelLeft Socialist Revolutionaries Michael MelanconLegal SystemsMichael NewcityLegislative Commission of 1767-1768 Janet HartleyLeichoudes, Ioannikios and Sophronios Nikolaos A. ChrissidisxxxiLIST OF ARTICLESLeipzig, Battle of Oleg BudnitskiiLena Goldfields Massacre Michael MelanconLend LeaseMikhail SuprunLeningrad Affair Richard BidlackLeningrad, Siege of Richard BidlackLenin’s TestamentChristopher WilliamsLenin’s TombKaren PetroneLenin, Vladimir Ilich Christopher ReadLeontiev, Konstantin Nikolayevich Alfred B. Evans Jr.Lermontov, Mikhail Yurievich Zhand P. ShakibiLeskov, Nikolai Semenovich Peter RollbergLesnaya, Battle ofPaul A. BushkovitchLezginsPaul CregoLiberal Democratic Party Nikolai PetrovLiberalismHugh PhillipsLiberman, Yevsei Grigorevich Robert W. CampbellLigachev, Yegor Kuzmich Jonathan HarrisLikhachev, Dmitry Sergeyevich John Patrick FarrellLithuania and Lithuanians Alfred Erich SennLitvinov, Maxim Maximovich Hugh PhillipsLiving Church Movement Edward E. RoslofLivonian WarMikhail M. KromLobachevsky, Nikolai Ivanovich Alexander VucinichLocal Government and Administration Igor YeykelisLomonosov, Mikhail Vasilievich Alexander VucinichLoris-Melikov, Mikhail Tarielovich Oleg BudnitskiiLotman, Yuri Mikhailovich Johanna GranvilleLovers of Wisdom, The Victoria FredeLubokGary ThurstonLubyankaGeorg WurzerLukashenko, Alexander Grigorievich David R. MarplesLukyanov, Anatoly Ivanovich Ann E. RobertsonLunacharsky, Anatoly Vasilievich Sheila FitzpatrickLuzhkov, Yuri Mikhailovich Terry D. ClarkLysenko, Trofim Denisovich R?sa Magn?sd?ttirMachine Tractor Stations Robert C. StuartMafia Capitalism Stefan HedlundMain Political Directorate Ann E. RobertsonMakarov, Stepan Osipovich Jacob W. KippMakary, Metropolitan Donald OstrowskiMakhno, Nestor Ivanovich Jonathan D. SmeleMalenkov, Georgy Maximilyanovich David R. MarplesMalevich, Kazimir Severinovich Hugh D. Hudson Jr.Malta SummitRaymond L. GarthoffxxxiiLIST OF ARTICLESMandelshtam, Nadezhda Yakovlevna Judith E. KalbMandelshtam, Osip Emilievich Judith E. KalbManifesto of 1763John T. AlexanderMansiRein TaageperaMari El and the Mari Seppo LallukkaMarket Socialism Richard EricsonMarriage and Family Life William G. WagnerMartov, Yuli Osipovich Nick BaronMarxismAlfred B. Evans Jr.MaslenitsaRoman K. KovalevMaterial Balances Susan J. LinzMaterial Product System Misha V. BelkindasMatryoshka DollsPriscilla RooseveltMatveyev, Artamon Sergeyevich Martha Luby LahanaMaxim the Greek, St. Hugh M. OlmstedMayakovsky, Vladimir Vladimirovich Mark KonecnyMazepa, Hetman Ivan Stepanovich Lindsey HughesMedvedev, Roy Alexandrovich Roger D. MarkwickMedvedev, Sylvester Agafonikovich Nikolaos A. ChrissidisMedvedev, Zhores Alexandrovich R?sa Magn?sd?ttirMelnikov, Konstantin Stepanovich Hugh D. Hudson Jr.MemorialPeter ReddawayMendeleyev, Dmitry Ivanovich Alexander VucinichMensheviksAlice K. PateMenshikov, Alexander Danilovich Lindsey HughesMercantilismMartin C. SpechlerMerchantsThomas C. OwenMeskhetian Turks Justin OdumMestnichestvoNancy Shields KollmannMetropolitanDonald OstrowskiMeyerhold, Vsevolod Yemilievich Sharon Marie CarnickeMighty HandfulMatthias StadelmannMigrationCynthia J. BuckleyMikhailovsky, Nikolai Konstantinovich Dmitri GlinskiMikhalkov, Nikita Sergeyevich Joan NeubergerMikoyan, Anastas Ivanovich Roger D. MarkwickMilitary ArtBruce W. MenningMilitary DoctrineBruce W. MenningMilitary-Economic Planning Mark HarrisonMilitary, Imperial Era Bruce W. MenningMilitary-Industrial Complex Steven RosefieldeMilitary IntelligenceDavid Schimmelpenninck van der OyeMilitary ReformsJohn W. SteinbergMilitary, Soviet and Post-Soviet Roger R. ReesexxxiiiLIST OF ARTICLESMilyukov, Paul Nikolayevich Oleg BudnitskiiMilyutin, Dmitry Alexeyevich Larissa ZakharovaMilyutin, Nikolai Alexeyevich Daniel FieldMingreliansB. George HewittMinin, KuzmaMaureen PerrieMinistries, Economic Paul R. GregoryMinistry of Foreign Trade James R. MillarMinistry of Internal Affairs Mark GaleottiMirStephan MerlMIR Space Station John M. LogsdonMniszech, Marina Chester DunningMoiseyev, Mikhail Alexeyevich Jacob W. KippMoldova and Moldovans William CrowtherMolotov, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Derek WatsonMonasticismScott M. KenworthyMonetary Overhang Pekka SutelaMonetary System, Soviet Pekka SutelaMontenegro, Relations with John D. TreadwayMordvinsIsabelle KreindlerMorozova, Feodosya Prokopevna Nada BoskovskaMorozov, Boris Ivanovich Richard HellieMorozov, Pavel Trofimovich Catriona KellyMoscowTerry D. ClarkMoscow Agricultural Society Robert E. JohnsonMoscow Art TheaterSharon Marie CarnickeMoscow Baroque Lindsey HughesMoscow, Battle of Anthony YoungMoscow Olympics of 1980 Paul R. JosephsonMoskvitin, Ivan Yurievich John McCannonMotion PicturesDenise J. YoungbloodMovement for Democratic Reforms Jonathan HarrisMovement in Support of the Army Nikolai PetrovMstislavMartin DimnikMuraviev, NikitaJohanna GranvilleMusavatGregory TwymanMuscovyDavid M. GoldfrankMuseum, Hermitage Ann E. RobertsonMusicMatthias StadelmannMyasoedov Affair Eric LohrNagorno-KarabakhGerard J. LibaridianNagrodskaya, Evdokia Apollonovna Johanna GranvilleNakhichevanGregory TwymanNakhimov, Pavel Stepanovich John C. K. DalyNapoleon IMarie-Pierre ReyxxxivLIST OFARTICLESNarimanov, Nariman Audrey AltstadtNarva, Battles ofPaul A. BushkovitchNaryshkina, Natalia Kirillovna Lindsey HughesNational Library of Russia Janice T. PilchNationalism in the Arts Stephen M. NorrisNationalism in the Soviet Union Victoria KhitererNationalism in Tsarist Empire Timothy SnyderNationalities Policies, Soviet Jeremy SmithNationalities Policies, Tsarist Andreas KappelerNation and Nationality Vera TolzNavarino, Battle of John C. K. DalyNazarbayev, Nursultan Abishevich David R. JonesNazi-Soviet Pact of 1939 Derek WatsonNear AbroadChristopher WilliamsNechayev, Sergei Geradievich Philip PomperNekrasov, Nikolai Alexeyevich Johanna GranvilleNemchinov, Vasily Sergeyevich Robert W. CampbellNemtsov, Boris Ivanovich Hugh PhillipsNenetsGail A. FondahlNeoclassicismRosalind P. GrayNerchinsk, Treaty of Jarmo T. KotilaineNeronov, IvanCathy J. PotterNesselrode, Karl Robert David M. GoldfrankNet Material Product Misha V. BelkindasNew Economic Policy Martin C. SpechlerNew-Formation Regiments W. M. Reger IVNew Political Thinking Archie BrownNewspapersMatthew E. LenoeNew Statute of Commerce Richard HellieNicaragua, Relations with Cole BlasierNicholas IStephen M. NorrisNicholas IIPeter WaldronNihilism and Nihilists Alfred B. Evans Jr.Nijinsky, Vaslav Fomichv Tim SchollNikitin, Afanasy Gail LenhoffNikon, Patriarch Cathy J. PotterNil Sorsky, St.David M. GoldfrankNogaiRoman K. KovalevNomenklaturaAlbert L. WeeksNormanist Controversy Heidi M. ShermanNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization Andrew A. MichtaNorthern Convoys Mikhail SuprunNorthern FleetJohanna GranvilleNorthern Peoples Gail A. FondahlxxxvLIST OF ARTICLESNorway, Relations with Jarmo T. KotilaineNovgorod, Archbishop of Lawrence N. LangerNovgorod Judicial Charter Lawrence N. LangerNovgorod the Great Janet MartinNovikov, Nikolai Ivanovich Johanna GranvilleNovocherkassk Uprising Samuel H. BaronNovosibirsk ReportAlfred B. Evans Jr.Novosiltsev, Nikolai Nikolayevich Hugh PhillipsNovozhilov, Viktor Valentinovich Robert W. CampbellNovy MirCatharine NepomnyashchyNystadt, Treaty of Lindsey HughesObrokElvira M. WilburObruchev, Nikolai Nikolayevich Oleg R. AirapetovObshchinaSteven A. GrantOccultismMaria CarlsonOctober 1993 Events Peter ReddawayOctober General Strike of 1905 Gerald D. SurhOctober Manifesto Oleg BudnitskiiOctober RevolutionAlexander RabinowitchOctobrist PartyZhand P. ShakibiOdoyevsky, Vladimir Fyodorovich Johanna GranvilleOfficial NationalityCynthia Hyla WhittakerOgarkov, Nikolai Vasilevich Jacob W. KippOkolnichySergei BogatyrevOkudzhava, Bulat Shalovich Gerald SmithOld Believer Committee Roy R. RobsonOld BelieversRoy R. RobsonOld StyleAnn E. RobertsonOlegMartin DimnikOlgaDavid K. PrestelOperaAlbrecht GaubOperation Barbarossa A. Delano DuGarmOprichninaSergei BogatyrevOrdin-Nashchokin, Afanasy Lavrentievich Martha Luby LahanaOrdzhonikidze, Grigory Konstantinovich Nick BaronOrganized Crime Louise ShelleyOrgburoChristopher WilliamsOrlova, Lyubov Petrovna Denise J. YoungbloodOrlov, Grigory Grigorievich John T. AlexanderOrthodoxyEdward E. RoslofOsetinsBrian BoeckOsorina, Yulianya Ustinovna Nada BoskovskaOstromir GospelDavid K. PrestelOstrovsky, Alexander Nikolayevich Gary ThurstonxxxviLIST OF ARTICLESOtrepev, GrigoryChester DunningOur Home Is Russia Party Nikolai PetrovPacific FleetJohanna GranvillePaganismDavid K. PrestelPakistan, Relations with Johanna GranvillePalekh PaintingK. Andrea RusnockPale of Settlement Diana FisherPaleologue, Sophia Isolde Thyr?tPallas, Peter-SimonAlexander VucinichPamyatZoe KnoxPanslavismAbbott GleasonParis, Congress and Treaty of 1856 David M. GoldfrankParis, First and Second Treaties of Marie-Pierre ReyParty Congresses and Conferences Robert V. DanielsParty of Russian Unity and Accord Nikolai PetrovPassport SystemGolfo AlexopoulosPasternak, Boris Leonidovich Larissa RudovaPatriarchatePaul A. BushkovitchPaul IMarie-Pierre ReyPavliuchenko, Lyudmila Mikhailovna Kazimiera J. CottamPavlova, Anna Matveyevna Tim SchollPavlov, Ivan Petrovich Sharon A. KowalskyPavlov, Valentin Sergeyevich Johanna GranvillePeasant EconomyStephen K. WegrenPeasantryRobert E. JohnsonPeasant Uprisings Dmitri GlinskiPechenegsRoman K. KovalevPeking, Treaty of Steven I. LevinePelevin, Viktor Olegovich Eliot BorensteinPeople’s Commissariat of Nationalities Ronald Grigor SunyPeople’s Control Committee Ann E. RobertsonPeople’s HousesE. Anthony SwiftPeople’s Party of Free Russia Nikolai PetrovPeople’s Will, The Deborah PearlPerestroikaArchie BrownPermanent Revolution Carl A. LindenPerovskaya, Sofia Lvovna Oleg BudnitskiiPersian Gulf WarRobert O. FreedmanPestel, Pavel Ivanovich Paul CregoPeter ILindsey HughesPeter IILindsey HughesPeter IIILindsey HughesPeter and Paul FortressWilliam Craft BrumfieldPetrashevtsyKathryn WeathersbyxxxviiLIST OF ARTICLESPetrov, Grigory Spiridonovich Jennifer HeddaPetrushkaPatricia ArantPetty Tutelage Susan J. LinzPhotography Erika WolfPimen, Patriarch Nathaniel DavisPirogov, Nikolai Ivanovich Alexander VucinichPisarev, Dmitry Ivanovich Johanna GranvillePlanners’ Preferences Richard EricsonPlaton (Levshin) J. Eugene ClayPlatonov, Sergei Fyodorovich Oleg BudnitskiiPlehve, Vyacheslav Konstantinovich Edward H. JudgePlekhanov, Georgy Valentinovich Samuel H. BaronPlenumJulie deGraffenriedPobedonostsev, Konstantin Michelle DenBestePodgorny, Nikolai Viktorovich Roger D. MarkwickPodyachyPeter B. BrownPodzolVictor L. MotePogodin, Mikhail Petrovich Johanna GranvillePogromsDavid PrettyPokrovsky, Mikhail Nikolayevich George EnteenPolandTheodore R. WeeksPolar ExplorersJohn McCannonPolesJohanna GranvillePolish Rebellion of 1863 Brian PorterPolitburoGraeme GillPolitical Party SystemThomas F. RemingtonPolotsky, SimeonPaul A. BushkovitchPolovtsyRoman K. KovalevPoltava, Battle ofJarmo T. KotilainePolyaneRoman K. KovalevPomestieRichard HelliePonomarev, Boris Kharitonovich Roger D. MarkwickPopov, Alexander Stepanovich Johanna GranvillePopov, Gavriil Kharitonovich Erik S. HerronPopov, Pavel IlichRobert W. CampbellPopular Front Policy Harold J. GoldbergPopulismChristopher WilliamsPort Arthur, Siege of Bruce W. MenningPortsmouth, Treaty of Nikolas GvosdevPosadnikLawrence N. LangerPossessors and Non-Possessors David M. GoldfrankPostal SystemAlison RowleyPotemkin, Grigory Alexandrovich John T. AlexanderPotemkin Mutiny Igor YeykelisxxxviiiLIST OF ARTICLESPotsdam Conference Joseph L. NogeePozharsky, Dmitry Mikhailovich Maureen PerriePravdaMatthew E. LenoePreobrazhensky Guards Bruce W. MenningPreobrazhensky, Yevgeny Alexeyevich Don FiltzerPresidencyErik S. HerronPresidential CouncilChristopher WilliamsPresidium of Supreme Soviet Richard HelliePrimakov, Yevgeny Maximovich Robert V. DanielsPrimary ChronicleDonald OstrowskiPrimary Party Organization Christopher WilliamsPrime MinisterGerald M. EasterPrimitive Socialist Accumulation James R. MillarPrisonsGeorg WurzerPrison SongsJulia UlyannikovaPrivatizationMarie LavigneProcuracyGordon B. SmithProdnalogStephen K. WegrenProdrazverstkaStephen K. WegrenProduction Sharing Agreement James R. MillarProkofiev, Sergei Sergeyevich Matthias StadelmannProkopovich, Feofan Gregory L. FreezeProletkultLynn MallyPropp, Vladimir Iakovlevich Natalie O. KononenkoProstitutionLaurie BernsteinProtazanov, Yakov Alexandrovic Denise J. YoungbloodProtestantismPaul D. SteevesProtopopov, Alexander Dmitrievich Nicholas V. RiasanovskyProvisional Government Daniel OrlovskyPrussia, Relations with Hugh PhillipsPruth River, Campaign and Treaty of Jean K. BergerPskov Judicial Charter Lawrence N. LangerPublic Opinion Studies Steven A. GrantPugachev, Emelian Ivanovich John T. AlexanderPugo, Boris Karlovich Jacob W. KippPurges, The GreatGabor T. RitterspornPushkin, Alexander Sergeyevich Diana SenechalPushkin HouseVanessa BittnerPutin, Vladimir Vladimirovich Dale HerspringPytatakov, Georgy Leonidovich Kate TranschelQuadruple Alliance and Quintuple Alliance Hugh PhillipsRabbinical Commission ChaeRan Y. FreezeRabkrinNick BaronRachmaninov, Sergei Vasilievich Albert L. WeeksxxxixLIST OF ARTICLESRadek, Karl Bernardovich William J. ChaseRadishchev, Alexander Nikolayevich W. Gareth JonesRadzinsky, Edvard Stanislavich Jacob W. KippRaikin, Arkady Isaakovich Robert WeinbergRailwaysVictor L. MoteRaionirovanieJames HeinzenRapallo, Treaty ofHarold J. GoldbergRasputin, Grigory Yefimovich Joseph T. FuhrmannRastrelli, BartolomeoWilliam Craft BrumfieldRatchet Effect Susan J. LinzRazin Rebellion James G. HartRaznochintsyVictoria KhitererRedemption Payments A. Delano DuGarmRed GuardsRex A. WadeRed SquareWilliam Craft BrumfieldRed TerrorVladimir BrovkinReferendum of April 1993 Nikolai PetrovReferendum of December 1993 Gordon B. SmithReferendum of March 1991 Edward W. WalkerRefuseniksJonathan D. WallaceRegionalismSusan Smith-PeterReitern, Mikhail Khristoforovich Jacob W. KippReligionGregory L. FreezeRepin, Ilya Yefimovich Louise McReynoldsRepressed Inflation Steven RosefieldeRevolution of 1905 Abraham AscherReykjavik SummitRaymond L. GarthoffRight Opposition Kate TranschelRimsky-Korsakov, Nikolai Andreyevich Matthias StadelmannRodzianko, Mikhail Vladimirovich John M. ThompsonRoerich, Nicholas Konstantinovich John McCannonRomania, Relations with Radu R. FlorescuRomanova, Anastasia Isolde Thyr?tRomanova, Anastasia Nikolayevna Ann E. RobertsonRomanov Dynasty Russell E. MartinRomanov, Grigory Vasilievich Ann E. RobertsonRomanov, Mikhail Fyodorovich Russell E. MartinRomanticismYuri TulupenkoRostislavMartin DimnikRostovtsev, Mikhail Ivanovich A. Delano DuGarmRota SystemJanet MartinRoute to GreeksRoman K. KovalevRubleJarmo T. KotilaineRuble Control Pekka SutelaxlLIST OF ARTICLESRublev, AndreiA. Dean McKenzieRuble ZoneJuliet JohnsonRumyantsev, Peter Alexandrovich Lindsey HughesRurikMartin DimnikRurikid Dynasty Janet MartinRussia-Belarus Union Omer FisherRussia CompanyMaria Salomon ArelRussian Association of Proletarian Writers Brian KassofRussian Federal Securities Commission James R. MillarRussian Federation Johanna GranvilleRussian Geographical Society Victor L. MoteRussian JusticeDaniel H. KaiserRussian National Unity Party William D. JacksonRussian Orthodox Church Gregory L. FreezeRussiansNancy RiesRussian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic Johanna GranvilleRussian State Library Janice T. PilchRussia’s Democratic Choice Nikolai PetrovRussificationTheodore R. WeeksRusso-Japanese War John W. SteinbergRusso-Persian WarsRobert F. BaumannRusso-Turkish Wars Bruce W. MenningRutskoi, Alexander Vladimirovich Jacob W. KippRybkin, Ivan Petrovich Nikolai PetrovRykov, Alexei Ivanovich Derek WatsonRyleyev, Kondraty Fyodorovich Johanna GranvilleRyutin, Martemyan James WhiteRyzhkov, Nikolai Ivanovich Ann E. RobertsonSaintsGregory L. FreezeSakha and Yakuts Erin K. CrouchSakharov, Andrei Dmitrievich Lisa A. KirschenbaumSaltykov-Shchedrin, Mikhail Yevgrafovich Emil DraitserSamiRein TaageperaSamizdatNickolas LupininSamoilova, Kondordiya Nikolayevna Barbara Evans ClementsSamoupravlenie Susan J. LinzSan Stefano, Treaty of Oleg R. AirapetovSarmatiansBrian PorterSartsMichael RoulandSberbankJuliet JohnsonScience and Technology Policy Paul R. JosephsonScience FictionYvonne Helen HowellScientific Socialism Michael EllmanScissors CrisisRobert C. StuartxliLIST OF ARTICLESScythiansRoman K. KovalevSecond EconomyMichael AlexeevSecond SecretaryAlbert L. WeeksSecretariatNorma C. NoonanSectarianismJ. Eugene ClaySecurity Council Peter RutlandSerapion BrothersElizabeth Jones HemenwaySerbia, Relations with Richard FruchtSerednyakiMartin C. SpechlerSerfdomRichard HellieSergei, PatriarchEdward E. RoslofSergius, St.David B. MillerService StateRichard HellieSevastopolJacob W. KippSeven-Year PlanMartin C. SpechlerSeven Years’ WarStephen M. NorrisShahumian, Stepan Georgievich Ronald Grigor SunyShakhrai, Sergei Mikhailovich Ann E. RobertsonShakhty TrialPeter H. Solomon Jr.ShamilMichael RoulandShaposhnikov, Boris Mikhailovich Bruce W. MenningShatalin, Stanislav Sergeyevich Dmitri GlinskiShcharansky, Anatoly Nikolayevich Johanna GranvilleShchepkin, Mikhail Semeonovich Louise McReynoldsShcherbatov, Mikhail Mikhailovich Johanna GranvilleShevardnadze, Eduard Amvrosievich Melvin GoodmanShevchenko, Taras Gregorevich Serhy YekelchykShlyapnikov, Alexander Gavrilovich Barbara AllenShock TherapyStefan HedlundShockworkersLewis H. SiegelbaumSholokhov, Mikhail Alexandrovich Karl E. LoewensteinShort CourseDavid BrandenbergerShostakovich, Dmitri Dmitrievich Matthias StadelmannShow TrialsPaul M. HagenlohShuisky, Vasily Ivanovich Chester S. L. DunningShumeiko, Vladimir Filippovich Ann E. RobertsonSiberiaVictor L. MoteSikorsky, Igor Ivanovich Johanna GranvilleSilver AgeJohn E. BowltSimeonMartin DimnikSimonov, Konstantin Mikhailovich Karl E. LoewensteinSimonov Monastery Nickolas LupininSinodikLudwig SteindorffSinope, Battle ofJohn C. K. DalyxliiLIST OF ARTICLESSinyavsky-Daniel Trial Jonathan D. WallaceSkazElizabeth Jones HemenwaySkobelev, Mikhail Dmitriyevich Daniel BrowerSkrypnyk, Mykola Oleksyovych Serhy YekelchykSlaveryRichard HellieSlavo-Greco-Latin Academy Nikolaos A. ChrissidisSlavophilesChristopher WilliamsSlutsky, Boris Abromovich Gerald SmithSlutsky, Yevgeny Yevgenievich Vincent BarnettSmolensk ArchiveChristopher WilliamsSmolensk War Brian DaviesSmolny InstituteAnna KuxhausenSmychkaCarol Gayle William MoskoffSobchak, Anatoly Alexandrovich Peter RutlandSocial Democratic Workers Party Robert C. WilliamsSocialismAbraham AscherSocialism in One Country Derek WatsonSocialist RealismCynthia A. RuderSocialist Revolutionaries Michael MelanconSokolovsky, Vasily Danilovich Michael ParrishSolidarity Movement Elizabeth TeagueSoloviev, Vladimir Sergeyevich Greg GautSolovki Monastery Jennifer B. SpockSolzhenitsyn, Alexander Isayevich Brian KassofSophiaLindsey HughesSorge, RichardMichael ParrishSorokoustLudwig SteindorffSoskovets, Oleg Nikolayevich Peter ReddawaySoslovieGregory L. FreezeSoul TaxMartin C. SpechlerSovietDavid PrettySoviet-Finnish War Richard H. BidlackSoviet-German Trade Agreement of 1939 Edward E. Ericson IIISoviet ManAlfred B. Evans Jr.Soviet-Polish War Timothy SnyderSovkhozRobert C. StuartSovnarkhozyDerek WatsonSovnarkomDerek WatsonSoyuz Faction Peter RutlandSpace ProgramJohn M. LogsdonSpanish Civil War Mary R. HabeckSpecial Purpose Forces Mark GaleottiSperansky, Mikhail Mikhailovich Albert L. WeeksSpiridonova, Maria Alexandrovna Sally A. BoniecexliiiLIST OF ARTICLESSpiritual EldersRobert L. NicholsSports PolicyVictor RosenbergSputnikPaul R. JosephsonStakhanovite Movement Lewis H. SiegelbaumStalingrad, Battle of David M. GlantzStalin, Josef Vissarionovich Graeme GillStanislavsky, Konstantin Sergeyevich Sharon Marie CarnickeStarovoitova, Galina Vasilievna Paul J. KubicekStasova, Yelena Dmitrievna Barbara Evans ClementsStasov, Vladimir Vasilievich Elizabeth K. ValkenierState CapitalismSteven RosefieldeState Committees Derek WatsonState CouncilZhand P. ShakibiState Defense Committee Roger R. ReeseState Enterprise, Law of the Martin C. SpechlerState OrdersPaul R. GregoryState PrincipleMikhail M. KromState Security, Organs of Stuart FinkelStatute of Grand Prince Vladimir Daniel H. KaiserStatute of Grand Prince Yaroslav Daniel H. KaiserStavkaBruce W. MenningStefan Yavorsky, Metropolitan J. Eugene ClayStenka RazinElena PavlovaStepashin, Sergei Vadimovich Jacob W. KippSteppeVictor L. MoteStiliagiLarissa RudovaStock Exchanges James R. MillarStolbovo, Treaty of Nikolas GvosdevStolnikDavid M. GoldfrankStolypin, Peter Arkadievich Francis W. WcisloSt. PetersburgAnn E. Robertson Blair A. RubleStrategic Arms Limitation Treaties Matthew O’GaraStrategic Arms Reduction Talks Matthew O’GaraStrategic Defense Initiative Johanna GranvilleStravinsky, Igor Fyodorovich Tim SchollStreltsyW. M. Reger IVStroibankJuliet JohnsonStrumilin, Stanislav Gustavovich Julia ObertreisStruve, Peter Bernardovich Carl A. LindenStukachAlbert L. WeeksSt?rmer, Boris Vladimirovich Samuel A. OppenheimSubbotnikSteven RosefieldeSubway Systems Andrew JenksSuccession, Law on Lindsey HughesxlivLIST OFARTICLESSuccession of Leadership, Soviet Norma C. NoonanSudebnik of 1497George G. WeickhardtSudebnik of 1550George G. WeickhardtSudebnik of 1589 Richard HellieSukonnaya SotnyaJarmo T. KotilaineSultan-Galiev, Mirza Khaidargalievich Daniel E. SchaferSumarokov, Alexander Petrovich Marcus C. LevittSupreme SovietAlbert L. WeeksSuslov, Mikhail Andreyevich Elaine MacKinnonSuvorin, Alexei Sergeyevich Charles A. RuudSuvorov, Alexander Vasilievich Bruce W. MenningSvansB. George HewittSvechin, Alexander Andreyevich James J. SchneiderSvyatopolk IMartin DimnikSvyatopolk IIMartin DimnikSvyatoslav IMartin DimnikSvyatoslav IIMartin DimnikSweden, Relations with Jarmo T. KotilaineSyn Boyarsky Brian DaviesSytin, Ivan Dmitrievich Charles A. RuudTable of RanksLindsey HughesTagankaMaia KippTajikistan and Tajiks Roger KangasTale of Avraamy Palitsyn Brian BoeckTannenberg, Battle of Dennis ShowalterTarkovsky, Andrei Arsenievich Nick BaronTashkentRoger KangasTASSMatthew E. LenoeTatarstan and Tatars Daniel E. SchaferTaxesMartin C. SpechlerTax, TurnoverMartin C. SpechlerTchaikovsky, Peter Ilyich Tim SchollTechpromfinplan Susan J. LinzTeheran Conference Joseph L. NogeeTeleological Planning Robert C. StuartTelevision and Radio Lucie HribalTemporary Regulations Abraham AscherTeremLindsey HughesTer-Petrossian, Levon Gerard J. LibaridianTerritorial-Administrative Units Edward W. WalkerTerrorismAnna GeifmanThaw, TheSusan CostanzoTheaterSusan CostanzoTheophanes the Greek A. Dean McKenziexlvLIST OF ARTICLESThick Journals Peter RollbergThin JournalsLouise McReynoldsThird RomeDavid M. GoldfrankThirteen Years’ War W. M. Reger IVThree Emperors’ League Jean K. BergerThree-Field System Daniel FieldTiflisRonald Grigor SunyTikhon, Patriarch Edward E. RoslofTilsit, Treaty of David WetzelTime of TroublesChester DunningTithe Church, KievWilliam Craft BrumfieldTkachev, Petr Nikitich Albert L. WeeksTogan, Ahmed Zeki Validov Daniel E. SchaferTolstaya, Tatiana Nikitichna Harold D. BakerTolstoy, Alexei Konstantinovich Elizabeth Jones HemenwayTolstoy, Leo Nikolayevich Michael A. DennerTomsky, Mikhail Pavlovich Alison RowleyTorkyRoman K. KovalevTotalitarianism Abbott GleasonTourismShawn SolomonTrade RoutesVictor L. MoteTrade Statutes of 1653 and 1667 Jarmo T. KotilaineTrade Unions Carol ClarkTranscaucasian Federations Stephen JonesTrans-Dniester Republic John GledhillTransition Economies Marie LavigneTrans-Siberian Railway Victor L. MoteTriandafillov, Viktor Kiriakovich James J. SchneiderTrinity St. Sergius Monastery David B. MillerTrotsky, Leon Davidovich Robert V. DanielsTrusts, SovietJames R. MillarTsarskoye Selo Anna Petrova Ilya VinkovetskyTsar, TsarinaAnn E. RobertsonTsiolkovsky, Konstantin Eduardovich Albert L. WeeksTsushima, Battle of Norman E. SaulTsvetaeva, Marina Ivanovna Diana SenechalTugan-Baranovsky, Mikhail Ivanovich Vincent BarnettTukhachevsky, Mikhail Nikolayevich Sally W. StoeckerTupolev, Andrei Nikolayevich Sally W. StoeckerTurgenev, Ivan Sergeyevich Michael A. DennerTurkestanSeymour BeckerTurkey, Relations with Robert O. FreedmanTurkmenistan and Turkmen Roger KangasxlviLIST OFARTICLESTur, YevgeniaJehanne M. GheithTuva and Tuvinians Johanna GranvilleTwenty-Five Thousanders Kate TranschelTyutchev, Fyodor Ivanovich Nicholas V. RiasanovskyU-2 Spy Plane Incident William TaubmanUdmurtsRein TaageperaUezdNick BaronUgra River, Battle of Mikhail M. KromUkazLindsey HughesUkraine and Ukrainians Serhy YekelchykUniate ChurchSerhy YekelchykUnion of Right Forces Nikolai PetrovUnion of Sovereign States Ann E. RobertsonUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics Archie BrownUnion of Soviet Writers Brian KassofUnion of Struggle for the Emancipation of Labor Reginald E. ZelnikUnion TreatyRoman SolchanykUnited NationsHarold J. GoldbergUnited Opposition Kate TranschelUnited States, Relations with Norman E. SaulUnity (Medved) Party Peter RutlandUniversitiesAlexander VucinichUnkiar Skelessi, Treaty of Nikolas GvosdevUshakov, Simon Fyodorovich A. Dean McKenzieUstinov, Dmitry Fedorovich Jacob W. KippUvarov, Sergei Semenovich Cynthia Hyla WhittakerUzbekistan and Uzbeks Roger KangasValue Subtraction Susan J. LinzVarennikov, Valentin Ivanovich Jacob W. KippVarga, Eugene Samuilovich Robert W. CampbellVasilevsky, Alexander Mikhailovich Johanna GranvilleVavilov, Nikolai Ivanovich Yvonne HowellVecheMichael C. PaulVekhiGary ThurstonVerbitskaya, Anastasia Alexeyevna Charlotte RosenthalVienna, Congress ofDavid M. GoldfrankVietnam, Relations with Stephen J. MorrisVikingsHeidi M. ShermanVilniusAlfred Erich SennVirgin Lands Program D. Gale JohnsonVirtual Economy Susan J. LinzVladimir Monomakh Martin DimnikVladimir, St.Francis ButlerVlasov MovementCatherine AndreyevxlviiLIST OF ARTICLESVodkaKate TranschelVolkogonov, Dmitry Antonovich Bruce W. MenningVolsky, Arkady Ivanovich Eric LohrVorontsov, Mikhail Semenovich Anthony RhinelanderVorontsov-Dashkov, Illarion Ivanovich Ronald Grigor SunyVoroshilov, Kliment Efremovich Bruce W. MenningVotchinaMikhail M. KromVoyevodaBrian DaviesVoznesensky, Nikolai Alexeyevich Mark HarrisonVsevolod IMartin DimnikVsevolod IIIMartin DimnikVyborg Manifesto Oleg BudnitskiiVyshinsky, Andrei Yanuarievich Peter H. Solomon Jr.Vyshnegradsky, Ivan Alexeyevich Boris N. MironovVysotsky, Vladimir Semyonovich Gerald SmithWages, SovietLewis H. SiegelbaumWar Communism Mark HarrisonWar EconomyMark HarrisonWar of the Third Coalition Norman E. SaulWarsaw Treaty Organization Andrew A. MichtaWesternizersBoris N. MironovWhat Is to Be Done?David K. McQuilkinWhite ArmyMary R. HabeckWhite Sea CanalCynthia A. RuderWinius, Andries Dionyszoon Jarmo T. KotilaineWinter PalaceWilliam Craft BrumfieldWitchcraftRoman K. KovalevWitte, Sergei Yulievich Boris N. MironovWomen of Russia Bloc Nikolai PetrovWorkersReginald E. ZelnikWorkers’ ControlJohn M. ThompsonWorkers’ Opposition Barbara AllenWorld Revolution William J. ChaseWorld War IDavid R. JonesWorld War IIMark HarrisonWrangel, Peter Nikolayevich Jonathan D. SmeleYablokoPeter RutlandYagoda, Genrikh Grigorevich Michael ParrishYakovlev, Alexander Nikolayevich Jonathan HarrisYalta ConferenceJoseph L. NogeeYanayev, Gennady Ivanovich Ann E. RobertsonYarlykDonald OstrowskiYaropolk IMartin DimnikYaroslav Vladimirovich Martin DimnikxlviiiLIST OF ARTICLESYaroslav Vsevolodovich Martin DimnikYaroslav Yaroslavich Martin DimnikYavlinsky, Grigory Alexeyevich Peter RutlandYazov, Dmitry Timofeyevich Jacob W. KippYeltsin, Boris Nikolayevich Ann E. RobertsonYermak Timofeyevich Maureen PerrieYesenin, Sergei Alexandrovich Brian KassofYevtushenko, Yevgeny Alexandrovich Gerald SmithYezhov, Nikolai Ivanovich Marc JansenYudenich, Nikolai Nikolayevich Jonathan D. SmeleYugoslavia, Relations with Richard FruchtYuri Danilovich Martin DimnikYuri Vladimirovich Martin DimnikYuri Vsevolodovich Martin DimnikZadonshchinaNorman W. InghamZagotovkaRobert C. StuartZaslavskaya, Tatiana Ivanovna Christopher WilliamsZasulich, Vera Ivanovna Michael EllmanZealots of PietyCathy J. PotterZemstvoOleg BudnitskiiZero-OptionMatthew O’GaraZhdanov, Andrei Alexandrovich Werner G. HahnZhelyabov, Andrei Ivanovich Oleg BudnitskiiZhenotdelElizabeth A. WoodZhensovetyMary BuckleyZhirinovsky, Vladimir Volfovich Jacob W. KippZhordania, Noe Nikolayevich Ronald Grigor SunyZhukov, Georgy Konstantinovich David GlantzZhukovsky, Nikolai Yegorovich Albert L. WeeksZinoviev, Grigory Yevseyevich Nick BaronZinoviev Letter Nick BaronZubatov, Sergei Vasilievich Jonathan W. DalyZyuganov, Gennady Andreyevich Luke March