Table of Contents

Britannica

Student

Encyclopedia

Volume 1 ..........................................A

Volume 2...........................................B

Volume 3 ..........................................C

Volume 4......................................D, E

Volume 5 ......................................F, G

Volume 6 ......................................H, I

Volume 7 ..................................J, K, L

Volume 8 .........................................M

Volume 9.....................................N, O

Volume 10.........................................P

Volume 11 ...................................Q, R

Volume 12 .........................................S

Volume 13.........................................T

Volume 14 ...................................U, V

Volume 15..........................W, X, Y, Z

Volume 16 ..............................INDEX

Britannica

Student

Encyclopedia

Chicago • London • New Delhi • Paris • Seoul • Sydney • Taipei • Tokyo

Volume 1

EDITOR

Mary Rose McCudden

SENIOR EDITORS

Michael J. Anderson

Andrea R. Field

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

Heather M. Campbell

Sherman Hollar

Sandra Langeneckert

Gene O. Larson

Robert M. Lewis

Sarah Forbes Orwig

Amy Tikkanen

ASSISTANT EDITOR

Joan Hibler

COPY DEPARTMENT

Sylvia Wallace, Director

Glenn Jenne, Supervisor

Julian Ronning, Supervisor

Laura M. Browning, Copy Editor

John Cunningham, Copy Editor

Michael Ray, Copy Editor

Sue Schumer, Copy Editor

Dennis Skord, Supervisor

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

AND RETRIEVAL

Carmen-Maria Hetrea, Director

Paul Cranmer, Retrieval Specialist

Mansur Abdullah, Classifier

Noelle Borge, Content Analyst

Wang-fai Wong, Content Analyst

COMPOSITION TECHNOLOGY

AND DESIGN

Steven N. Kapusta, Director

Carol A. Gaines, Composition Supervisor

Cate Nichols, Composition Coordinator

Lara C. Mondae, Designer

ART

Susana Darwin, Associate Managing

Editor

Kathy Nakamura, Photo Department

Manager

Karen M. Koblik, Senior Photo Editor

Nicole DiGiacomo, Photo Editor

Illustrators

David Alexovich, Illustration Manager

Thomas J. Spanos, Lead Illustrator

Christine McCabe, Senior Illustrator

Jerry Kraus, Senior Illustrator

Katherine D. Burgess, Illustrator

Claudiu Varan, Illustrator

Judie Anderson, Fable and Mythology

Illustrations

Media Asset Management

Jeannine Deubel, Manager

Kimberly Cleary, Media Assets Supervisor

Kurt Heintz, Senior Technician

Nadia Venegas, Assistant Media

Coordinator

CARTOGRAPHY

Michael Nutter, Senior Map Editor

PRODUCTION CONTROL

Marilyn L. Barton, Senior Coordinator

EDITORIAL TECHNOLOGIES

Steven Bosco, Director

Bruce Walters, Senior Systems Coordinator

Mark Wiechec, Principal Engineer

PUBLISHING TECHNOLOGIES

Lisa S. Braucher, Data Editor

MANUFACTURING

Kim Gerber, Director

ENCYCLOP.DIA BRITANNICA

Jacob E. Safra,

Chairman of the Board

Jorge Aguilar-Cauz,

President

Michael Ross,

Senior Vice President Corporate

Development

Dale H. Hoiberg,

Senior Vice President and Editor

Marsha Mackenzie,

Managing Editor and Director of

Production

Anita Wolff,

Executive Editor

Staff

2010 Britannica Student Encyclopedia

Britannica, Encyclop.dia Britannica, and the thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclop.dia Britannica, Inc.

No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2009904642

Britannica may be accessed at http://www.britannica.com on the Internet.

International Standard Book Number: 978-1-61535-363-7

eBook edition January, 2010

How to go to your page

This eBook contains ................volumes. Each volume has its own page

numbering scheme, consisting of a volume number and a page number,

separated by a colon.

For example, to go to page 5 of Volume 1, type V..:5 in the "page #" box

at the top of the screen and click "Go." To go to page 5 of Volume 2,

type V2:5… and so forth.

The 16 volumes of the Britannica Student Encyclopedia from

Encyclop.dia Britannica contain articles on more than 2,200 topics.

The articles are arranged in alphabetical order from

How to Use the Britannica

Student Encyclopedia

Getting Started

There are several ways to find the information you

want.

If you are looking for a particular title you can go

to the volume that contains articles that start with

the same letter and search for your topic there. For

example, if you want to read the article on the

American Revolution, you can go to the A volume.

The words at the top of each page tell you

which article is on that page. When you are looking

for an article you can page through quickly by

looking at those words.

Sometimes there are different ways of naming the

same subject. A feature called a title cross-reference

can help guide you to the title that we have used.

For example, if you look for an article called “Car”

in the C volume you will find a note that says

“Aardvark” in Volume 1 to “Zuni” in Volume 15.

The last volume is the index.

Then you can look for the Automobile article in

the A volume.

You can also search for your topic in the index. If

there is an article on your topic the index will tell

you which volume and page number to go to to

find that article. Sometimes a topic does not have

its own article, but you can still find information

about that topic in the encyclopedia. The index

can tell you where you can find that information.

For example, if you look up the topic “dragon” in

the index you will see that there is information

about dragons in the article called “Animals,

Legendary” even though there is no article on

dragons.

Car

#see Automobile.

Article Features

In addition to the text of the articles, there are

many special features that add information.

Most articles have at least one photograph, illustration,

or map. Many have more than one.

At the end of most articles, there is a feature called

“More to explore.” This feature tells you which

articles to go to to get more information about the

topic or about something that was mentioned in

the article.

“Did You Know?” boxes provide quick facts about

many different articles throughout the set.

Certain articles have additional special features.

The continents, countries, U.S. states, and

Canadian provinces have colored backgrounds to

tell you what kind of unit it is. The continents are

purple, the countries are yellow, and the states and

provinces are green. These articles also have fact

boxes. The fact boxes contain basic information,

including population and area figures.

Some of the countries also have timelines of major

events in the country’s history.

The U.S presidents have timelines of major events

in the lives of each president.

4 How to Use the Britannica Student Encyclopedia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

kept slaves of their own. These slaves

worked on large farms that supplied

food for the army and the royal court.

The empire grew larger and stronger

throughout the 1700s. After Great Britain

and other countries outlawed the

slave trade in the 1800s Dahomey

started selling palm oil instead of slaves.

At the end of the 1800s France conquered

Dahomey. The French combined

it with other regions to form a colony

that was also called Dahomey. This

colony gained its independence in 1960.

It kept the name of Dahomey until

1975, when it became Benin.

#More to explore

Benin • Slavery

Daisy

Daisies are flowers with flat petals that

surround a round center. Daisies belong

to the aster family, which also includes

chrysanthemums, dahlias, marigolds,

sunflowers, and zinnias.

Common types of daisy include the

oxeye daisy; the English, or true, daisy;

and the Shasta daisy. These daisies grow

in Europe, North America, and other

parts of the world. Oxeye and English

daisies grow in gardens and in the wild.

The Shasta daisy is mainly a garden

plant.

Daisy plants often grow to about 2 to 3

feet (61 to 91 centimeters) tall. Two

types of flower make up each flower

head. Ray flowers are what people call

petals. The ray flowers may be long or

short. Tiny disk flowers make up the

center. The center may be flat or

rounded. Depending on the type of

daisy, the flower heads are from 1 to 4

inches (2.5 to 10 centimeters) wide.

Oxeye and Shasta daisies have a ring of

white ray flowers around a bright yellow

center. The ray flowers of the English

daisy may be white, purple, pink, or red.

#More to explore

Flower • Marigold • Plant • Sunflower

Dakar

Population

(2002 estimate)

1,983,093

Dakar is the capital of Senegal, a country

in West Africa. It is the largest city in

People often use colorful daisies to brighten

flower arrangements.

Daisies are

perennials,

which means

that they

bloom year

after year

without having

to be

replanted.

6 Daisy BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Daisies are

perennials,

which means

that they

bloom year

after year

without having

to be

replanted.

Africa

Africa is the world’s second largest continent.

More than 50 countries make up

the continent. More than one eighth of

the world’s population lives there.

Land and Climate

Africa’s landscape is varied. The northern

and western parts of the continent

are generally lower and more level than

the eastern and southern areas. Africa is

the oldest continent. Therefore most of

its mountains are not as high as those on

other continents. They have been worn

down over millions of years by wind and

water.

Africa’s most striking feature is a series

of great rifts, or troughs, in the east

known as the Rift Valley system. These

rifts span two continents, from western

Asia through eastern Africa. In Africa

they are deep, long, narrow valleys.

The world’s longest river, the Nile, flows

through northern Africa. The continent’s

other long rivers include the

Congo in central Africa, the Niger in the

west, and the Zambezi in the south.

Eastern Africa has a chain of lakes

known as the great lakes.

The continent is crossed midway by the

equator. This means that most of

Africa—the middle portion—lies within

the tropics, an area where it is hot yearround.

In the lowlands near the equator,

rain falls throughout the year. To the

north and south of this rainy area are

large regions that have a rainy season

followed by a dry season. It is very hot

A pair of giraffes is at home near Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.

38 Africa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Cameroon

The West African country of Cameroon

takes its name from the Rio dos Camaroes

(River of Shrimps), the name the

Portuguese gave to the Wouri River. The

capital is Yaounde.

Cameroon is bordered by Nigeria,

Chad, the Central African Republic,

Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and

Equatorial Guinea. The Atlantic Ocean

lies to the west. Mountains run through

the north and west. The country has hot

temperatures year-round.

Rain forests are in the south. Mangroves

grow along the coasts and rivers. Monkeys

live in the forests. Elephants,

baboons, and antelope live in the

wooded grasslands of the north.

The ethnic groups of Cameroon include

the Fang, the Bamileke, the Duala, and

the Fulani. English and French are the

official languages, but people speak many

other languages. The majority of the

people follow Christianity or traditional

religions. The north is mostlyMuslim.

Cameroon’s economy is based on farming.

The main crops include cassava,

sugarcane, corn, bananas, and sorghum.

The country also produces petroleum

(oil), lumber, and cocoa for export.

Humans have lived in what is now

Cameroon for at least 50,000 years.

Eventually Bantu people settled in the

south and the west, and the Fulani settled

in the north. In the 1470s the Portuguese

established sugar plantations and a slave

trade. Germany gained control in the late

1800s. AfterWorldWar I Cameroon was

divided into French and British zones. In

1960 the French zone became the

independent republic of Cameroon.

#More to explore

Yaounde

People gather to buy and sell goods at a

market in Maroua, Cameroon.

Facts About

CAMEROON

Population

(2005 estimate)

16,988,000

Area

183,569 sq mi

(475,442 sq km)

Capital

Yaounde

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Douala, Yaounde,

Garoua, Maroua,

Bafoussam

22 Cameroon BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Connecticut

The state of Connecticut was

named for the Connecticut

River. Algonquian Indians called the

river Quinnehtukqut, meaning “land on

the long tidal river.” Connecticut is

nicknamed the Constitution State

because its early settlers wrote a set of

laws to govern themselves that later provided

ideas for the U.S. Constitution.

Those laws, known as the Fundamental

Orders of Connecticut, were created in

1638 and covered such issues as elections,

powers of officials, and taxation.

The capital of Connecticut is Hartford.

Geography

Connecticut is the southernmost New

England state. It is bordered by Massachusetts

on the north, Rhode Island on

the east, New York on the west, and the

Long Island Sound on the south.

Connecticut has highlands in the west

and east with a lowland in the middle.

The northern part of the western highlands

is called the Litchfield Hills. They

include Mount Frissell, which is the

state’s highest point at 2,380 feet (725

meters). The central lowland includes

the fertile Connecticut River valley. The

eastern highlands are low, wooded hills

with many rivers.

People

At the time of the first U.S. census, in

1790, almost all of Connecticut’s people

were English. In the 1800s Irish, French

Canadian, Italian, Polish, and other

European immigrants settled in the

state. Today more than four fifths of

Connecticut’s residents are of European

heritage. African Americans and Hispanics

each make up about 9 percent of the

population. The state’s Asian American

and Native American groups are small.

Connecticut has a large population for

its size. As a result, it is one of the country’s

most crowded states. Most of its

people live in cities or towns. Bridgeport,

on the coast, is the largest city.

Other large cities are Hartford, New

Haven, and Stamford.

Economy

Real estate, finance, and the insurance

industry are major parts of Connecticut’s

economy. Hartford is known as the

Insurance Capital of theWorld because

of the many insurance companies with

offices there. Manufacturing businesses

in Connecticut produce jet aircraft

engines, computer equipment, chemicals,

machinery, and other goods. Hart-

184 Connecticut BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Facts About

CAMEROON

Population

(2005 estimate)

16,988,000

Area

183,569 sq mi

(475,442 sq km)

Capital

Yaounde

Bush, George

After serving two terms as vice president,

George Bush became the 41st

president of the United States in 1989.

The main event of Bush’s presidency

was the Persian GulfWar.

Early Life

George HerbertWalker Bush was born

on June 12, 1924, in Milton, Massachusetts.

His family later moved to Greenwich,

Connecticut. George was the

second of five children born to Prescott

Sheldon Bush and DorothyWalker

Bush. His father was a banker and later a

U.S. senator.

In 1942 Bush joined the U.S. Naval

Reserve. As a Navy pilot, he flew many

missions in the Pacific duringWorld

War II. In 1945 Bush married Barbara

Pierce. After the war he attended Yale

University and earned a degree in economics.

Bush then moved to Texas,

where he helped start three companies

dealing in oil and drilling equipment.

Political Career

As a member of the Republican Party,

Bush ran for the U.S. Senate in 1964

June 12,

1924 1966 1976 1980 1988 1991 1992

Bush is born

in Milton,

Massachusetts.

Bush is elected

to the U.S.

House of

Representatives.

Bush becomes

the head of

the Central

Intelligence

Agency.

Bush is elected

vice president

under President

Ronald

Reagan.

Bush is elected

president.

The United

States and

allies defeat

Iraq in the

Persian Gulf

War.

Bush loses the

presidential

election to Bill

Clinton.

T I M E L I N E

George Bush was the 41st president of the

United States.

154 Bush, George BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

June 12,

1924 1966 1976

Bush is born

in Milton,

Massachusetts.

Bush is elected

to the U.S.

House of

Representatives.

the Cent

Intelligen

Agency.

#More to explore

Flower • Marigold • Plant • Sunflower

Acropolis means “city at the

top” in Greek.

(See Acropolis.)

Airships float in the air like

balloons, but they have engines

and can be steered.

(See Airship.)

Alchemists were people who

were famous for trying to turn

lead into gold.

(See Alchemy.)

Almonds are commonly called

nuts, but they are actually

seeds.

(See Almond.)

At least six types of amoeba

are found in human beings.

(See Amoeba.)

Knights in Europe once wore

armor made of large steel or

iron plates.

(See Armor.)

Aardvark

The unusual mammal called the aardvark

was named by South Africans in

the early 1800s. In the local language,

Afrikaans, “aardvark” means “earth pig.”

This name aptly describes a large,

heavily built animal with thin hair and

short, stumpy legs. The scientific name

of the aardvark is Orycteropus afer.

Aardvarks live in dry places in Africa

south of the Sahara Desert. The aardvark

can reach a length of 6 feet (1.8 meters).

Its head has huge donkeylike ears, a long

snout, and drooping eyelids with long

lashes. During the day aardvarks sleep in

underground burrows. At night they dig

underground for their favorite food,

termites. They break open the termites’

nests with their massive, flattened claws.

Then they suck up the insects with their

long tongue.

Female aardvarks give birth to one baby

per year. After a few weeks the baby

begins to follow its mother around. It

goes off on its own before it is 1 year

old. Aardvarks can live for more than 20

years in zoos.

Aaron, Hank

On April 8, 1974, major league baseball

star Hank Aaron hit his 715th home

run. That home run broke Babe Ruth’s

record of 714, which had stood since

1935. Aaron broke several other batting

records as well. Because he hit so well he

was sometimes called Hammerin’ Hank.

Early Life

Henry Louis Aaron was born on February

5, 1934, in Mobile, Alabama. Even

as a young boy Hank hoped to play professional

baseball. At age 16 he began

playing shortstop with the semiprofessional

Mobile Black Bears baseball team.

Career

Aaron began his professional career in

1952. He played a few months as a

shortstop with the Indianapolis Clowns

of the Negro American League. In 1954

Although aardvarks look like anteaters, they

are actually related to elephants, manatees,

and dugongs.

Hank Aaron

6 Aardvark BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Aaron joined the Boston Braves of the

National League, where he played

mostly as an outfielder.

In 1955 Aaron established himself as a

star. He had a .314 batting average, 27

home runs, and 106 runs batted in

(RBI). In 1957 he helped lead the

Braves to their firstWorld Series title.

The Braves moved to Atlanta, Georgia,

at the end of 1965, and Aaron moved

with them. After the 1974 baseball season,

he was traded to the Milwaukee

Brewers of the American League.

Retirement

Aaron retired after the 1976 season with

a lifetime batting average of .305. He

was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame

on January 13, 1982. At the time he held

several career batting records, including

755 home runs, 1,477 extra-base hits,

and 2,297 RBIs. His home run record

was broken in 2007 by Barry Bonds.

..More to explore

Baseball • Ruth, Babe

Abacus

Long before the invention of the electronic

calculator or the computer, people

counted and did calculations with a

device called an abacus. On this instrument,

calculations are made with beads,

or counters, instead of numerals. The

beads are arranged on wires stretched

across a frame. Each wire represents the

ones, tens, hundreds, and so on.

The abacus was probably invented in

Mesopotamia by an ancient group of

people known as Sumerians. The

ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and

Chinese all used the abacus as well.

In about AD 700 the Hindus invented a

numeral system that made adding with

written numbers as easy as adding on an

abacus. The Arabs soon adopted this

system, and they introduced it into

Europe more than 1,000 years ago. As

written calculations became easier, the

abacus passed out of use in Europe. But

it continues to be used by people in

China, Japan, and the Middle East.

Abbreviation

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a

word or a phrase. People use abbreviations

to save time and space. People are

always creating new abbreviations, and

old ones are sometimes forgotten.

Some abbreviations are official, such as

the codes that the U.S. Postal Service

uses for the states. Others are more

informal. People often use the abbrevia-

An abacus

expert can

add numbers

almost as fast

as a person

with a pocket

calculator.

The abacus is an ancient device to help

solve math problems.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Abbreviation 7

tion ad for the word advertising, for

example.

There are a few different kinds of abbreviations.

People often abbreviate words

by writing only the first letter, one or a

few other letters in the word, and a

period. For instance, the word teaspoon

is abbreviated as “tsp.”

People abbreviate phrases by writing

only the first letter of each word. This

type of abbreviation is usually written in

capital letters with no periods between

them. For example, the abbreviation for

“as soon as possible” is ASAP.

One of the most common types of

abbreviation is called an acronym. Acronyms

combine the first letters of a group

of words to create a new word. NASA,

which stands for National Aeronautics

and Space Administration, is an acronym.

It is pronounced “NA-suh,” not

“N-A-S-A.”

Some Common Abbreviations

AD anno Domini (in the year of

the Lord)

AM ante meridiem (before noon)

Ave. Avenue

BC before Christ

Blvd. Boulevard

C Celsius, centigrade

CD-ROM compact disc read-only

memory

cm, m, km centimeter, meter, kilometer

Dr. Doctor

DVD digital videodisc

F Fahrenheit

ft foot, feet

g, kg gram, kilogram

IOU I Owe You

Jr. Junior

l liter

mph miles per hour

no. numero (number)

oz. ounce

PM post meridiem (after noon)

Rd. Road

Sr. Senior

St. Saint, Street

vs. versus (against)

U.S. Postal Codes

AK Alaska

AL Alabama

AR Arkansas

AZ Arizona

CA California

CO Colorado

CT Connecticut

DC District of Columbia

DE Delaware

FL Florida

GA Georgia

HI Hawaii

IA Iowa

ID Idaho

IL Illinois

IN Indiana

KS Kansas

KY Kentucky

LA Louisiana

MA Massachusetts

MD Maryland

ME Maine

MI Michigan

MN Minnesota

MO Missouri

MS Mississippi

MT Montana

NC North Carolina

ND North Dakota

NE Nebraska

NH New Hampshire

NJ New Jersey

NM New Mexico

NV Nevada

NY New York

OH Ohio

OK Oklahoma

OR Oregon

PA Pennsylvania

RI Rhode Island

SC South Carolina

SD South Dakota

TN Tennessee

TX Texas

UT Utah

VA Virginia

VT Vermont

WA Washington

WI Wisconsin

WV West Virginia

WY Wyoming

8 Abbreviation BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Some acronyms become so common

that they begin to be used as real words

rather than as abbreviations. The word

laser started out as an acronym. Its full

scientific meaning is “light amplification

by stimulated emission of radiation.”

Abernathy, Ralph

Ralph Abernathy was a leader of the civil

rights movement in the United States.

He worked closely with Martin Luther

King, Jr.

Ralph David Abernathy was born on

March 11, 1926, in Linden, Alabama. In

1948 he became a minister in the Baptist

church. In 1950 he graduated from Alabama

State University with a degree in

mathematics. Then he studied sociology

at Atlanta University in Atlanta, Georgia.

In 1951 Abernathy became pastor of the

First Baptist Church in Montgomery,

Alabama. A few years later he met Martin

Luther King, Jr. The two men began

fighting laws that kept blacks and whites

separated.

One such law forced blacks and whites

to sit in separate parts of buses. In 1955

Abernathy and King organized a protest

of the Montgomery bus system. Blacks

refused to ride the buses until the seating

rules were changed. This protest

helped start the civil rights movement.

In 1957 King and Abernathy started the

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

(SCLC). The SCLC was an organization

that worked to win equal rights

for blacks. After King was murdered in

1968, Abernathy became president of

the SCLC.

Abernathy resigned as president of the

SCLC in 1977. Then he went back to

being a pastor in Atlanta. He died there

on April 17, 1990.

#More to explore

Civil Rights Movement • King, Martin

Luther, Jr.

Abidjan

Population

(2005 estimate)

urban area,

3,576,000

Abidjan is the largest city of Cote d’Ivoire

inWest Africa. It was the country’s

capital until 1983. Then Yamoussoukro

was made the capital. Even after that

Ralph Abernathy

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Abidjan 9

date, however, Abidjan remained the site

of most government functions.

Abidjan is located in the southern part

of the country. It has a port even though

it is separated from the Atlantic Ocean

by a sandbar. The Vridi Canal connects

the port to the sea.

Because of the port, Abidjan is a center

ofWest African trade. Cocoa, coffee,

timber, bananas, pineapples, and fish are

shipped from the port. The city also

manufactures beer, soap, matches, and

automobiles.

Abidjan became the capital of the

French colony of Ivory Coast in 1934.

Ivory Coast became the independent

country of Cote d’Ivoire in 1960.

Abidjan remained the capital.

#More to explore

Cote d’Ivoire • Yamoussoukro

Abnaki

The Abnaki (or Abenaki) were a group

of Native American tribes who originally

lived in what are now New England and

eastern Canada. They included the Passamaquoddy,

the Penobscot, and the

Pennacook.

The Abnaki hunted animals such as

bear, deer, and moose in the forests.

They fished in lakes and rivers. The

coastal tribes caught lobsters and gathered

oysters and clams. The southern

tribes planted fields of corn, squash, and

beans.

The Abnaki generally lived in small

bands of related families. Bands lived

part of the year in permanent villages

and part of the year in hunting camps.

Their houses were cone-shaped wigwams

made from a wooden frame covered

with bark.

In the early 1600s Europeans began

arriving in Abnaki territory. Most were

traders who offered metal tools and

other European goods in exchange for

furs. But the Europeans also brought

diseases such as smallpox that killed

tribespeople by the thousands.

The coastal city of Abidjan is an important

business center of Cote d’Ivoire.

Abnaki Native Americans perform a traditional

dance in Vermont.

10 Abnaki BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

After the American Revolution (1775–

83) the Americans took over much of

the tribes’ territory.Without land, the

Abnaki could no longer live in their

traditional way. Some managed to

change their way of life and survive. In

the late 20th century about 1,000

Abnaki lived in Quebec, Canada. More

than 6,000 Abnaki lived in the United

States.

#More to explore

Native Americans

Abolitionist

Movement

In the late 1700s people who were

opposed to slavery began a movement to

abolish, or end, the practice. This was

called the abolitionist movement. Followers

of the movement were known as

abolitionists.

Europeans had begun using Africans as

slaves in the late 1400s. After Europeans

discovered the Americas they set up

colonies there. Soon many Africans were

being shipped to the Americas to work

on the sugar and cotton plantations in

the colonies.

In the 1600s certain people in the British

colonies of North America condemned

slavery on religious grounds.

There were few other protests, however,

until the 1700s. Slowly but steadily,

more and more people became opposed

to the idea of holding other human

beings as private property.

Antislavery Efforts Around

theWorld

The first formal organization to emerge

in the abolitionist movement was the

Abolition Society, founded in 1787 in

Britain. By 1807 Britain had abolished

the slave trade with its colonies. By 1833

all slaves in the British colonies in the

Western Hemisphere were freed. Other

countries in Europe soon followed this

example. France outlawed the slave trade

by 1819, and in 1848 slavery was

banned in all French colonies.

Slavery was abolished country by country

in South America. In Chile the first

antislavery law was passed as early as

1811. Slavery finally ended in South

America when Brazil passed an antislavery

law in 1888.

United States

In the United States the slave trade was

officially abolished in 1807, but the

smuggling of slaves continued until the

CivilWar. As cotton plantations devel-

An antislavery meeting is pictured in London,

England, in 1840.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Abolitionist Movement 11

oped in the South, the demand for

slaves increased. The Southern states

thus supported slavery. In contrast, by

1804 all of the states north of Maryland

had abolished slavery. The North

became the center of the abolitionist

movement in the United States.

The best-known leader of this movement

was William Lloyd Garrison. He

founded the American Anti-Slavery

Society in 1833. The U.S. abolitionists

did not always agree about how to end

slavery, however. Some wanted the government

to pass laws to end slavery.

Others tried to help individual slaves

gain their freedom. They established the

Underground Railroad to help escaping

slaves reach places of safety in the North

or in Canada.

The abolitionist movement gained

strength as more and more people

learned about the evils of slavery. People

were disgusted by the cruelty of the slave

hunters who brought escaped slaves back

to their owners. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s

novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) presented

powerful descriptions of how

slaves were mistreated. The book became

extraordinarily popular.

In November 1860 Abraham Lincoln

was elected president of the United

States. Lincoln opposed the spread of

slavery. The South felt threatened. Over

the next three months a series of Southern

states separated from the United

States and formed the Confederacy. This

led to the American CivilWar (1861–

65). During the fighting, in 1863, Lincoln

issued the Emancipation

Proclamation. This document freed all

slaves in the Confederate states. In 1865

the Confederacy was defeated. Then

slavery was abolished in the United

States by the 13th Amendment to the

Constitution.

#More to explore

American CivilWar • Brown, John

• Emancipation Proclamation • Lincoln,

Abraham • Slavery • Stowe, Harriet

William Lloyd Garrison Beecher • Underground Railroad

An abolitionist

named John

Brown stole

weapons from

the U.S. government

1859. He

wanted to start

a slave rebellion.

He was

killed but

became an

abolitionist

hero.

Cassius Marcellus Clay worked to end slavery

even though he was from a slaveholding

family in the South.

12 Abolitionist Movement BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Aboriginal

Peoples

Aboriginal peoples, or aborigines, are

groups of people who have lived in one

area for many thousands of years. In the

past, aborigines lived in areas far from

other cultures. They were unknown

until outsiders came into their lands.

Today there are only a few places left in

the world where outsiders have not

affected aboriginal cultures. Aborigines

still live in the rain forests of South

America, on the island of New Guinea,

and in the mountains of Malaysia and

the Philippines. They have kept many of

their original ways of life.

The Australian Aborigines are probably

the best-known aboriginal society. They

came to Australia more than 40,000

years ago. They still live there today.

Australian Aborigines were originally

hunter-gatherer tribes that moved from

place to place to find food and water.

They lived in caves or built short-term

shelters from branches, bark, and animal

skins. The men fished and hunted for

animals. The women gathered plants,

eggs, and other food.

The Aborigines’ lives changed when

Europeans arrived in Australia more

than 200 years ago. The Europeans

forced the Aborigines to move off their

land and to change their way of life.

Many Aborigines died defending their

land. Many others died from diseases

brought by the Europeans.

Today Aborigines live in all parts of Australia

and do all kinds of work. But

many Aborigines are poor. They do not

have the same opportunities as most

other Australians.

..More to explore

Australia • Culture

Abraham

Abraham is an important figure in the

Jewish, Christian, and Islamic religions.

He is considered to be the patriarch, or

founding father, of the nation of Israel.

The story of Abraham is told in Genesis,

the first book of the Bible. In modern

times archaeologists have found ancient

clay tablets that tell more of the story.

According to the Bible, Abraham came

from Ur in Mesopotamia (now Iraq).

His people were sheepherders who

moved from place to place. About 4,000

years ago they settled near Haran, in

An Australian Aborigine stands before a

large rock known as Uluru/Ayers Rock.

Parts of the rock and the land around it are

sacred to the Aborigines of the area.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Abraham 13

what is now Turkey. There God

instructed Abraham to leave his people

and move to a new land. Abraham

obeyed.

At age 75 he journeyed to Canaan (the

land that is now Israel) with his wife,

Sarah, and others. God told him that he

and his children would inherit that land.

At first Abraham and Sarah thought

they were too old to have children.

Abraham’s first child, Ishmael, was born

to a servant of Sarah’s. But Isaac was

born later to Sarah. The Bible says that

Abraham died at the age of 175.

Isaac inherited the land of Canaan. After

his death the land went to his son,

Jacob. God changed Jacob’s name to

Israel. His descendants were the Jewish

people. In Christianity, Abraham is considered

to be the father of all who

believe in God. Abraham is important to

Muslims as well. They are said to be the

descendants of Abraham’s son Ishmael.

In the Koran, the holy book of Islam, it

is said that Abraham and Ishmael built

the Kaaba. The Kaaba, a shrine in

Mecca, Saudi Arabia, is the holiest place

in the Islamic world.

#More to explore

Bible • Christianity • Islam • Judaism

• Koran • Mecca • Mesopotamia

Absaroka

#see Crow.

Abu Bakr

Abu Bakr was an adviser to the prophet

Muhammad, the founder of Islam. After

Muhammad’s death, Abu Bakr took

charge of the Islamic world. He is

known as the first caliph.

Christians, Jews, and Muslims all see Abraham

as an important religious figure. A

painting shows Abraham during his journey

to Canaan.

Abu Bakr (second from left) was an

important Islamic leader.

14 Absaroka BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Abu Bakr was born in the Arabian town

of Mecca (now in Saudi Arabia), which

was also the birthplace of Muhammad.

His daughter !A#ishah became one of

Muhammad’s wives.

While Muhammad was dying, he called

upon Abu Bakr to lead prayers and pilgrimages

in his place. By that time

Muhammad was more than the religious

leader of the Islamic lands; he was their

political ruler as well. After Muhammad

died in 632, Abu Bakr ruled as caliph.

Caliph means “successor” (one who

comes afterward). The Islamic lands

were called the Caliphate.

As caliph, Abu Bakr fought wars against

Arabian tribes who rebelled against him.

He soon brought the tribes of Arabia

under Muslim rule. Abu Bakr then sent

armies into what are now Syria and Iraq.

This began a series of conquests that

spread Islam far beyond Arabia. Abu

Bakr died in 634.

..More to explore

Caliphate • Islam • Mecca

• Muhammad

Abu Dhabi

Population

(2007 estimate)

633,140

Abu Dhabi is the capital of the United

Arab Emirates, a union of Arab states on

the Arabian Peninsula. It is also the capital

of Abu Dhabi kingdom, the largest of

the seven states.

The city of Abu Dhabi occupies most of

a small triangular island in the Persian

Gulf. The island is connected to the

mainland by a short bridge.

Local tribesmen settled Abu Dhabi in

1761. Through most of its history the

town remained small and undeveloped.

This changed when rich oil fields were

discovered in Abu Dhabi in 1958. Oil

revenues were used to modernize the

town. Electricity, running water, and a

central sewage system were installed.

Modern buildings and a new port were

built.With modernization, the population

grew.

The United Arab Emirates gained independence

from Great Britain in 1971.

Abu Dhabi became the permanent capital

of the federation in the early 1990s.

..More to explore

United Arab Emirates

The Sultan Zayed Mosque in Abu Dhabi

was named for a longtime ruler of the

United Arab Emirates. The sultan was buried

in the mosque when he died in 2004.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Abu Dhabi 15

Abuja

Population

(2006 census),

Federal Capital

Territory,

1,405,201

Abuja is the capital of the African country

of Nigeria. It was built in the 1980s

to replace the crowded coastal city of

Lagos as the capital.

Abuja is located near the center of Nigeria

in an area called the Federal Capital

Territory. It is about 300 miles (480

kilometers) northeast of Lagos. The city

is built on the grass-covered Chukuku

Hills. The climate is cooler and less

humid than that of Lagos.

Abuja is divided into two zones. The

central area contains the government

buildings. The other zone provides

housing, shopping facilities, and other

services for the people who live there.

The government started planning the

new city of Abuja in 1976. It took more

than 10 years to build the city, but the

population grew even before it was finished.

Abuja officially became the capital

in 1991.

..More to explore

Nigeria

Accra

Population

(2003 estimate)

1,847,432

Accra is the capital and largest city of the

West African country of Ghana. Its

name comes from the word nkran in the

Akan language. This refers to the black

ants that thrive in the area. Accra is situated

on the Gulf of Guinea.

Accra is the site of Ghana’s main government

offices. It is also the economic

center of Ghana. It contains the head

offices of all the country’s large banks

and trading firms. The city also has large

open markets. Its main products are

processed food, lumber, and textiles.

The city of Accra was formed in 1877.

By that time the British had gained control

of the whole area. It became known

as the colony of the Gold Coast. Accra

was the capital of the colony. The modern

city of Accra was carefully planned

and laid out between 1920 and 1930.

The Nigerian presidential palace is located

in the hills of the country’s capital, Abuja.

16 Abuja BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

When the Gold Coast gained independence

as Ghana in 1957, Accra

remained the capital.

#More to explore

Ghana

Acid and Base

Acids and bases are two related groups of

chemicals. They are important to living

things and have many uses in industry.

Acids

Some acids are found in food. They

include acetic acid in vinegar, lactic acid

in milk, and citric acid in lemons. They

often have a sour taste. Other acids are

found in animals. The stomach makes

an acid that helps break down food.

Some acids do not come from living

things. These can be so strong that they

can corrode, or break down, metals.

They should not be tasted or touched.

Sulfuric acid is one example. It is used to

make fertilizers, dyes, drugs, explosives,

and certain batteries. When an acid is

dissolved in water the result is called an

acidic solution.

Bases

Bases may feel slippery in water. Some

are used in foods or medicines. These

often have a bitter taste. Examples of

bases include baking soda and milk of

magnesia. Other bases are used in

manufacturing. These are too strong to

be tasted or touched. Sodium hydroxide,

or lye, breaks down animal and plant

tissues. It is used to make soap, paper,

and artificial fibers. When water is combined

with a base the result is called a

basic, or alkaline, solution.

Acid-Base Reactions

When acids and bases are combined

they produce water and compounds

called salts. They have a salty taste and

none of the characteristic properties of

either acids or bases. The reactions

between acids and bases can be quite

strong. One result is that they can

quickly produce gases. This is why baking

soda is useful for baking pastries and

cakes. When it is combined with an acid

such as lemon juice or sour cream in a

dough mixture, it releases gases that

make the dough rise.

Identifying Acids and Bases

Acids and bases make some materials

change color. A special kind of paper

called litmus paper is one type of mate-

A strip of litmus paper shows

that a solution contains an acid.

If the solution contained a base

the paper would have turned

blue.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Acid and Base 17

rial that does this. An acid in water turns

litmus paper red. A base in water turns

the paper blue. A neutral substance,

such as pure water, gives litmus paper a

color midway between red and blue.

Acid Rain

Acid rain is a form of air pollution.

When coal and petroleum are burned in

automobiles, electric power plants, and

factories, they release certain harmful

gases into the air. These gases combine

with the oxygen and water in the air.

When the water in the air comes down

as rain, sleet, hail, or snow, it carries

with it these gases. This is known as acid

rain. Acid rain is very damaging to all

life forms.

Acid rain can pollute lakes and streams,

killing the fish and other organisms that

live in them. Acid rain also damages

various kinds of vegetation, including

farm crops and trees. In addition, acid

rain corrodes, or wears away, surfaces of

buildings and other structures.

By the early 1990s tens of thousands of

lakes had been destroyed by acid rain.

The problem has been most severe in

Norway, Sweden, and Canada. Damage

from acid rain is not limited to the

countries that produce the pollution.

This is because winds carry the pollution

around the globe.

Despite much discussion between many

countries, there is still no clear solution

to the problem. The chief reason is that

it is expensive to control the pollution.

However, since the damage from acid

rain to the environment is permanent,

the environmental costs are greater.

Acne

Most teenagers and some adults experience

a skin condition called acne. Some

cases of acne are very mild and go away

without leaving any signs. Others are

more serious and may cause scarring.

Boys are more likely than girls to have

severe acne.

Lesions (abnormal bumps or spots) on

the skin are the main symptom of acne.

Acne lesions are commonly known as

pimples. They occur especially on the

face and neck.

Acne is caused by changes inside the

body that affect the skin. These changes

occur naturally as a boy or girl reaches

puberty, or matures. At that time the

body produces more of chemicals called

Acid rain can be very damaging to trees

and other plants. The branch on the left has

been affected by acid rain. It looks much

different than the branch on the right.

18 Acid Rain BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

hormones. Some of those hormones

speed up the skin’s production of oil.

The extra oil clumps together with dead

skin cells to clog pores, or tiny openings

in the skin. As the oil gland under a

clogged pore makes more oil, the pore

swells up to form a pimple.

There is very little a person can do to

prevent acne. However, there are treatments

for clearing up acne and ways of

preventing acne from getting worse.

Washing the skin twice a day with a

mild soap can be helpful. This removes

some oil and dead skin cells that help to

clog skin pores.

In some cases a doctor may prescribe

medicine to treat infections caused by

acne. Doctors may also suggest medicated

lotions or creams that can be put

on the skin.

#More to explore

Hormone • Skin

Acropolis

Ancient cities were often built around a

fortress on top of a hill. When a city

spread to the area below, the high part

came to be called the acropolis, which

means “city at the top” in Greek. The

best-known acropolis is in Athens,

Greece.

The buildings of the Athens Acropolis

were made mostly of white marble. Parts

of some of the buildings, including a

temple called the Erechtheum, are still

standing today. The Erechtheum had a

porch with marble columns in the shape

of female figures.

The most famous surviving building is

the Parthenon. The Parthenon was built

almost 2,500 years ago and was dedicated

to the goddess Athena. Athens was

later ruled by Christians who made the

Bumps called pimples are the main sign of

acne.

The ruins of the Parthenon stand out on the

Acropolis in Athens, Greece.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Acropolis 19

Parthenon a church. In the 1400s Turkish

forces took control of the Acropolis

and made the Parthenon an Islamic

mosque. In 1687, during a war, some

gunpowder stored there exploded,

destroying the middle of the building.

In 1801 a British diplomat named Lord

Elgin took many sculptures and carved

panels from the Parthenon and brought

them to England. They were put on

display at the British Museum. The

Greek government, however, asked for

their return to Greece. The sculptures

remained on display while the dispute

continued into the 21st century.

#More to explore

Athena • Athens

Acupuncture

Acupuncture is an ancient Chinese form

of healing. It involves piercing the skin

with thin needles to relieve pain. Today

acupuncture is also popular in Europe,

the Americas, and Australia.

Modern doctors accept that acupuncture

can control pain and nausea. Some doctors

recommend acupuncture along with

regular medical treatments for such ailments

as asthma, high blood pressure,

indigestion, and stress. Doctors in China

have even used acupuncture instead of

drugs to stop pain during surgery.

People who practice acupuncture must

take courses to learn how to do it correctly.

In many places only medical doctors

may perform acupuncture.

During treatment the patient lies on a

table while the acupuncturist sticks special

needles into certain points on the

body. The needles are made of metal and

are about as thick as a human hair. They

normally go less than 0.5 inch (1 centimeter)

into the skin. There are hundreds

of possible points where the needles can

be stuck, each with a different effect.

Doctors are not sure how acupuncture

works. Some think that the needles

cause the body to produce pain-killing

chemicals. Others think that the needles

block pain signals from traveling along

the nerves to the brain. Some think that

acupuncture acts like a placebo—a treatment

that works only because patients

believe it will.

Adams, Abigail

Abigail Adams was the wife of President

John Adams and the mother of Presi-

A woman receives an acupuncture

treatment.

20 Acupuncture BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

dent John Quincy Adams. Her reading

and her family life gave her a good

understanding of politics. She strongly

favored American independence and

universal liberty. She was also determined

to overcome the limits that were

placed on women at the time.

Abigail Smith was born on November

22, 1744, inWeymouth, Massachusetts.

As a girl she studied the books in her

father’s large library.Women could not

go to college then, but Abigail received a

good education at home.

In 1759 Abigail met the young lawyer

John Adams. They shared interests in

reading, writing, and politics. They married

in 1764 and settled on a farm in

Braintree (now Quincy), Massachusetts.

They had five children. Abigail, John

Quincy, Charles, and Thomas survived

to adulthood.

John Adams’ law practice and political

duties kept him away from home much

of the time. Abigail Adams stayed in

touch with her husband and other

family members by letter. Her letters

are full of her opinions on the

important issues of the day. This was

during the time when the American

colonies began to fight for

independence from Great Britain. She

wrote in favor of American

independence. Like her husband, she

also believed that slavery had no place

in a country dedicated to freedom.

In 1789 John Adams became the first vice

president of the United States. Eight years

later he became the second president.

Even during those terms Abigail was

often inMassachusetts running the

family farm. In 1800, however, she

moved with the president into the White

House, which was unfinished at the time.

After Adams’ term as president he and

Abigail returned to Quincy and settled

comfortably into retirement. Abigail

died on October 28, 1818.

#More to explore

Adams, John • Adams, John Quincy

• American Revolution • White House

Adams, Ansel

U.S. photographer Ansel Adams is

famous for his striking images of

Western landscapes. He was among the

first people to promote photography as

an art form. Adams also was known for

his love of nature.

Ansel Adams was born in San Francisco,

California, on February 20, 1902. He

was originally a student of music. Photography

was only a hobby for him until

Abigail

Adams

supported

womens’

rights. She told

her husband

John Adams to

“remember the

ladies” during

the fight

for U.S.

independence.

Abigail Adams

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Adams, Ansel 21

1927. That year he published his first

collection of photographs.

In 1940 Adams helped found the

world’s first museum collection of photographs

at the Museum of Modern Art

in New York City. In 1946 he established

the first academic department to

teach photography as a profession. He

did that at the California School of Fine

Arts in San Francisco.

Adams was a nature lover throughout

his life. He published many collections

of photographs that he took in the wilderness

areas of the United States. They

include My Camera in the National Parks

and Photographs of the Southwest.

In 1980 Adams was awarded the Presidential

Medal of Freedom, the highest

nonmilitary honor in the United States.

He died on April 22, 1984, in Carmel,

California.

Adams, John

As a lawyer in the American colonies,

John Adams fought for independence

from Great Britain. He went on to

become the first vice president and the

second president of the new United

States.

Early Life

John Adams was born in Braintree (now

Quincy), Massachusetts, on October 30,

1735. His father was a farmer and a

community leader. After graduating

from Harvard College in 1755, Adams

became a lawyer. In 1764 Adams married

Abigail Smith. They had five children.

One daughter died in infancy.

Revolutionary Era

Adams became a leader in the fight

against British laws in the colonies. Still,

Ansel Adams prepares to take a

photograph along the coast of

California.

John Adams was the second president of

the United States.

22 Adams, John BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

as a lawyer, Adams defended British

soldiers who had killed five colonists in

the Boston Massacre of 1770. This made

him unpopular for a time among the

other colonists. But Adams believed that

everyone’s legal rights should be protected.

In 1774 Massachusetts’ colonists elected

Adams to the Continental Congress.

There he asked GeorgeWashington to

serve as commander of the Continental

Army, the military force of the colonies

during the American Revolution. He

also chose Thomas Jefferson to write the

Declaration of Independence.

In 1779 Adams served at the Massachusetts

Constitutional Convention. He

wrote the document that became the

state’s constitution of 1780. Adams then

joined Benjamin Franklin in Paris,

France. There he helped to produce the

Treaty of Paris, which ended the American

Revolution.

Vice Presidency

In 1789 Adams finished second to

GeorgeWashington in the presidential

election. Under the system of the time,

Adams became vice president. Voters

reelected the two men in 1792.

Political parties began to form during

Washington’s presidency. Adams and

Alexander Hamilton led the Federalists,

who supported a strong central government.

They opposed the Democratic-

Republicans, led by Jefferson, who

wanted the states to have more power.

Presidency

Adams won a narrow victory over Jefferson

in the election of 1796. Adams was

not a popular president. He followed his

own principles instead of others’ opinions.

Adams even disagreed with other

Federalists, notably Hamilton.

During Adams’ presidency a dispute

between the United States and France

October 30, July 4,

1735 1774 1783 1789 1796 1800 1826

Adams is born

in Braintree

(now Quincy),

Massachusetts.

Adams joins

the Continental

Congress.

Adams helps

create the

Treaty of Paris,

which ends the

American

Revolution.

Adams

becomes vice

president under

President

George

Washington.

Adams is

elected

president.

Adams loses

the presidency

to Thomas

Jefferson.

Adams dies in

Quincy,

Massachusetts.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Adams, John 23

almost led to war. The French had

expected the United States to support

them in their war with Britain. The

United States refused, and the French

began seizing U.S. ships. Hamilton and

others called for war with France.

Adams, however, thought the United

States was not ready for another war.

Going against his party, he made peace

with France.

Adams faced more criticism for the passage

of the Alien and Sedition Acts in

1798. Those harsh laws made it more

difficult for new immigrants to stay in

the country. They also punished critics

of the government.

Defeat and Death

Adams lost to Jefferson in the presidential

election of 1800. Adams died within

hours of Jefferson on July 4, 1826, the

50th anniversary of the signing of the

Declaration of Independence.

#More to explore

American Revolution • Continental

Congress • Hamilton, Alexander

• Jefferson, Thomas • United States

Adams, John

Quincy

Son of President John Adams, John

Quincy Adams became the sixth president

of the United States in 1825.

Although he was intelligent and dedicated

to his country, Adams was not

very popular. His accomplishments as a

diplomat and congressman overshadowed

his uneventful presidency.

Early Life

John Quincy Adams was born on July

11, 1767, in Braintree (now Quincy),

Massachusetts. He grew up during the

American Revolution. His father was a

member of the Continental Congress.

His mother, Abigail Adams, also was a

patriot. Adams studied in Europe and in

Massachusetts at Harvard College. After

graduating in 1787, he studied law and

became a lawyer in Boston.

In 1797 Adams married Louisa Catherine

Johnson. The couple had four children,

a daughter and three sons. One of

their sons, Charles Francis Adams,

became a member of the House of Representatives

and a diplomat.

Early Career

In 1794 President GeorgeWashington

made Adams the U.S. minister to The

John Adams

was the first

president who

lived in the

White House.

He moved in

on November

1, 1800.

John Quincy Adams was the

sixth president of the United

States.

24 Adams, John Quincy BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Netherlands. In 1797 Adams’ father,

now president, made Adams ambassador

to Prussia. In 1802 Adams was elected

to the Massachusetts Senate. In 1803 he

was elected to the U.S. Senate. After five

years he resigned from the Senate to

practice law.

In 1809 President James Madison

appointed Adams minister to Russia. In

1815 Adams became minister to Great

Britain. He returned to the United

States in 1817 and became secretary of

state under President James Monroe. In

that role Adams helped persuade Spain

to give control of Florida to the United

States. He also helped create the Monroe

Doctrine, a warning to European countries

not to extend their power in the

Western Hemisphere.

Presidency

In 1824 Adams was one of four candidates

for the presidency. Andrew Jackson

received the most electoral votes, followed

by Adams. No one had a majority

of the votes, however, so the House of

Representatives had to pick the winner.

The House chose Adams. He took office

in 1825.

The country prospered during Adams’

presidency, but he was not a successful

leader. He wanted to create a national

university and expand the country’s

roads. However, Jackson’s supporters in

Congress blocked most of Adams’ bills.

In the election of 1828 Adams lost to

Jackson.

Later Career and Death

Adams retired in 1829, but his retirement

was brief. In 1830 Massachusetts

elected him to the House of Representatives.

In Congress Adams argued against

the expansion of slavery. He also helped

start the Smithsonian Institution, which

today runs several museums inWashington,

D.C. Adams suffered a stroke in

1848 while speaking in the House. He

July 11, February 23,

1767 1803 1817 1824 1828 1831 1848

Adams is born

in Braintree

(now Quincy),

Massachusetts.

Adams is

elected to the

U.S. Senate.

President James

Monroe makes

Adams

secretary of

state.

Adams is

elected the

sixth president

of the United

States.

Adams loses

the presidential

election to

Andrew

Jackson.

Adams

enters the

U.S. House of

Representatives.

Adams dies in

Washington,

D.C.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Adams, John Quincy 25

died in the Capitol two days later, on

February 23, 1848.

#More to explore

Adams, John • Jackson, Andrew

• United States

Adams, Samuel

A strong attachment to the cause of

independence made Samuel Adams a

leader of the American Revolution. As a

politician and as a writer he stirred the

colonists against British rule.

Samuel Adams was born in Boston,

Massachusetts, on September 27, 1722.

His second cousin was John Adams, the

second president of the United States.

Sam graduated from Harvard College in

1740 and soon entered local politics.

In the 1760s Adams led protests against

the British, who ruled the colonies at the

time. He served in the Massachusetts

legislature from 1765 to 1774. In 1772

he helped organize a “committee of correspondence.”

This was a group that

coordinated anti-British activity.

Adams was among the first to call for

complete independence for the American

colonies. As a member of both Continental

Congresses, he said that

Americans must be ready to fight. In

1776 he signed the Declaration of Independence.

In 1794 Adams was elected

governor of Massachusetts. He died on

October 2, 1803.

#More to explore

Adams, John • American Revolution

• Continental Congress • Declaration of

Independence

Adaptation

Plants and animals have special characteristics,

or traits, that help them survive

in their surroundings. They develop

these traits through a process called

adaptation.

Many animals have traits that help them

hide from other animals that want to

attack them. Some insects look like a

leaf or a twig. Deer are colored shades of

brown, like the trees in the forests where

they live. In both cases, these animals

become almost invisible to their predators,

or attackers, because they blend in

with their surroundings.

Other animals have features that help

them deal with some part of their surroundings.

Frogs, alligators, and hippopotamuses

all spend a great deal of time

in the water. They all have their eyes and

Samuel Adams nostrils near the top of the head. This

26 Adams, Samuel BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

means that the animal may remain

almost completely underwater and yet

be able to see and breathe.Water birds

have webbed feet to help them paddle in

the water. Cactus plants, which live in

dry places, can store a lot of water. A

cactus has thick skin and a waxy surface.

This keeps the plant from losing water

through evaporation.

Organisms with helpful traits tend to

thrive, to reproduce, and to pass those

traits on to their own offspring. Similar

organisms that do not have these traits

do not survive as well and do not have as

much chance to reproduce. Therefore

the helpful traits are passed on and eventually

become permanent. This process

is called natural selection. It is part of

the process of evolution.

#More to explore

Animal • Evolution • Plant

Addams, Jane

The social worker Jane Addams devoted

her life to helping the poor and promoting

world peace. She founded Hull

House to serve needy immigrants in

Chicago, Illinois. It was one of the first

agencies of its kind in North America.

Jane Addams was born on September 6,

1860, in Cedarville, Illinois. She gradu-

Many animals have developed features to help them survive in their habitat. Hippopotamuses’

eyes and nostrils are on the top of the snout. This allows them to spend a lot of time

almost completely underwater. Ducks have webbed feet to help them swim. Walruses have

thick skin to protect against the cold.

Jane Addams

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Addams, Jane 27

ated from college in 1882 and then went

to Europe. In a poor section of London,

England, she visited Toynbee Hall. University

graduates lived there and worked

to improve life in the neighborhood. It

was known as the world’s first social

settlement. Addams took this idea back

to the United States.

In 1889 Addams and a classmate, Ellen

Gates Starr, rented a big house in Chicago.

They moved in and opened the

house to immigrants who were trying to

succeed in their new country. Addams

and Starr called their social settlement

Hull House after its builder, Charles

Hull. Hull House workers started a day

care center, a kindergarten, a gymnasium,

and an employment agency. They

taught many kinds of classes and even

set up a theater. All these programs

eventually filled 13 buildings.

Addams became involved in many social

causes. She worked to pass laws against

child labor, to protect workers’ rights,

and to win women the right to vote.

Addams believed that countries should

settle their disagreements peacefully. She

spoke out againstWorldWar I even

though her opinion made her less popular.

In 1931 she won a share of the

Nobel peace prize.

Addams lived at Hull House until her

death on May 21, 1935. The original

Hull mansion has been preserved as a

museum that honors her.

..More to explore

Chicago

Addis Ababa

Population

(2006 estimate)

2,973,000

Addis Ababa is the capital and largest

city of the East African country of

Ethiopia. It is situated on a plateau high

in the central mountains of Ethiopia.

Ethiopia’s government ministries and

houses of parliament are located in

Addis Ababa. The city also contains the

headquarters of the African Union.

Most of Ethiopia’s trade passes through

Addis Ababa. In the western part of the

city is the Mercato. It is one of the largest

open-air markets in Africa. Goods manufactured

in the city include textiles, food,

beverages, plastics, and wood products.

Addis Ababa became the capital of

Ethiopia in the late 1800s. Before that

Worshippers gather at an Ethiopian Orthodox

church in Addis Ababa.

28 Addis Ababa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

the capital was Entoto, a cold, windswept

town just to the north. In 1887

the empress Taitu persuaded her husband,

Emperor Menelik II, to move the

capital to its present site.

From 1935 to 1941 Italian forces occupied

Addis Ababa as well as the rest of

Ethiopia. The Italians paved roads and

constructed European-style buildings.

Development of the city was slow from

1941 until 1960. Beginning in the

1960s, however, Addis Ababa grew rapidly

in population.

#More to explore

Ethiopia

Adena Culture

The ancient Native Americans of the

Adena culture lived in a large area centered

in what is now southern Ohio.

The Adena people thrived from about

500 BC to AD 100. They are known

mostly for the earthen mounds they

built. The term Adena comes from the

name of a place where archaeologists

found Adena mounds in the early

1900s.

The Adena settled in hundreds of small

villages along the Ohio River. They lived

in cone-shaped houses and fed themselves

by hunting, fishing, and gathering

fruits and wild plants. They made tools

from wood, bone, and copper. They also

wove cloth and molded simple pots

from clay.

The Adena constructed hundreds of

earthen mounds in the area that now

makes up Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky,

West Virginia, and Pennsylvania. Many

of the mounds were burial sites. The

Adena built many mounds in simple

shapes such as circles and rectangles.

They shaped other mounds like animals.

The most famous is the Great Serpent

Mound near Peebles, Ohio. This mound

looks like a giant snake and is nearly

1,300 feet (400 meters) long.

No one knows for sure what happened

to the Adena people after about AD 100.

Some scientists think that they joined

the Hopewell people, who developed a

similar culture in the territory where the

Adena had lived.

#More to explore

Hopewell Culture • Native Americans

Adobe

Adobe is a type of clay that is used to

make bricks. People in many dry parts

The largest burial mound of the Adena culture

can be seen in what is now northern

West Virginia. It was built more than 2,000

years ago.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Adobe 29

of the world use adobe bricks to build

buildings. This is partly because there

are few trees in these regions to supply

wood for building.

People make adobe bricks by wetting

clay and then adding straw or another

type of fiber. They mix the material and

pour it into molds. The molds have four

sides and are open at the top. People

then lay the bricks out in the sun to dry,

which can take several weeks. When

they are dry, the adobe bricks are ready

to use.

Adobe buildings usually start with a base

of stone or concrete.Workers stack the

adobe bricks on this base. They stick the

bricks together with a mudlike material

called mortar. Adobe buildings are very

strong and last for hundreds of years.

Adobe buildings also stay warm in winter

and cool in summer.

People have used adobe for thousands of

years. Ancient peoples east of the Mediterranean

Sea, in North Africa, and in

southern Spain made adobe bricks.

American Indians in the driest parts of

North and South America also built

with adobe. For example, the Pueblo

Indians built many adobe houses in

what is now the southwestern part of the

United States.

#More to explore

Clay • Pueblo Indians

Adolescence

Adolescence is the time in a young person’s

life between childhood and adulthood.

Adolescence starts when a person

is about 12 years old and ends at about

the age of 19. A person in this age group

is called an adolescent, or a teenager.

Adolescence is a time of great change.

Adolescents experience changes in their

bodies. They also experience changes in

their emotions, or feelings, as well as

their thoughts and beliefs. They often

see the world differently, and they act

differently than they did when they were

children.

The buildings of Taos Pueblo in New

Mexico are made of adobe. Some have

been lived in for more than 1,000 years.

Relationships with their friends are very

important to most adolescents.

30 Adolescence BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Changes in the Body

During adolescence, the reproductive

system develops. The reproductive

organs are the parts of the body that

allow men and women to make babies.

Girls’ and boys’ bodies change in different

ways. Boys grow facial hair, and their

voices deepen. They also develop stronger

muscles. Girls grow breasts and wider

hips, and they start having menstrual

periods. This means that they are able to

become pregnant.

Emotional Changes

Adolescence is an exciting time. It is also

a time that can be very confusing. Boys

and girls become much more interested

in each other. At the same time they

may worry about their appearance, and

they are sometimes easily embarrassed.

During adolescence, most boys and girls

care a lot about what other adolescents

think of them. They may also be very

concerned with how they fit into their

world. Often adolescents choose to

spend time with their friends rather than

with their families.

Growing Independence

As adolescents grow emotionally, they

begin to take on new responsibilities and

gain new freedoms. They act and think

more independently. They also start to

find a balance between family and

friends. These changes mean that adolescents

are on their way to becoming

adults.

..More to explore

Child Development • Reproductive

System

Adriatic Sea

The Adriatic Sea separates Italy from the

Balkan Peninsula of eastern Europe. It

was probably named after the port town

of Adria, which prospered during

ancient Roman times.

The Adriatic is about 500 miles (800

kilometers) long and has an average

width of 100 miles (160 kilometers). Its

maximum depth is 4,100 feet (1,250

meters). The sea has a high salt content.

The climate is Mediterranean. This

means that it has clear, warm, and dry

summers and mild, humid winters.

The Adriatic extends from the Gulf of

Venice, in the north, southeastward to

the Strait of Otranto, which leads to the

Ionian Sea near Albania. Its western, or

Italian, coast is low and straight. The

eastern coast is rocky and mountainous.

The countries of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia

and Herzegovina, and Montenegro

border the sea to the east.

The Adriatic is an important part of

tourism in the region. Many holiday

Bosnia and

Herzegovina’s

seacoast on

the Adriatic is

only 12 miles

(20 kilometers)

long.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Adriatic Sea 31

resorts are located on its shores. The

fishing catch on the Adriatic includes

lobsters, sardines, and tuna.

Advertising

Whenever people give information to

the public about an event, a product, or

a service, they are using advertising. A

piece of advertising is called an advertisement,

or ad.

The goal of most advertising is to make

the public want to buy whatever is being

advertised. People also use advertising to

make the public form opinions about

things. For example, an ad could try to

make the public believe that a company

treats its workers well. Another ad could

try to make voters choose a certain candidate

for president.

Ads appear almost everywhere. They are

found in newspapers and magazines.

They appear on television, radio, and

the Internet. Ads are also posted as signs

in all kinds of public places.

The Media and Advertising

When advertisers want many people to

see or hear their ads, they pay the media

to have the ads published or broadcast.

Newspapers and magazines publish, or

print, ads between their articles. Television

and radio networks broadcast, or

play, ads during their programs. (Television

and radio ads are also called commercials.)

Web sites, buses, movie

theaters, and many other places also

display ads in exchange for money.

Control of Advertising

Advertisers are regulated, or controlled,

in several ways. Governments usually

pass laws to make sure that ads are

truthful and do not offend consumers.

Also, the media usually set their own

rules that advertisers must follow.

History of Advertising

Signs were the first form of advertising.

Even thousands of years ago people created

hand-lettered signs to advertise

their goods and services. The invention

of the printing press in the 1400s

expanded this type of advertising. Merchants

could print dozens of the same

posters and fliers to advertise what they

were selling. In the 1600s and 1700s

newspapers appeared in Europe, the

Americas, and Japan. Advertising then

became even more widespread.

Today advertising is a huge part of business

around the world. A major corpora-

Bright advertisements compete for attention

in New York City.

32 Advertising BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tion may spend hundreds of millions of

dollars a year just on advertising.

#More to explore

Magazine • Newspaper • Radio

• Television

Aegean

Civilization

The earliest European civilization arose

sometime after 3000 BC, in the region of

the Aegean Sea. It took place on the

islands and the mainland of what is now

the country of Greece. This civilization

went through several stages. It began on

the island of Crete. That early part is now

called theMinoan civilization.On the

mainland of Greece it developed later.

That is now calledMycenaean

civilization.

Minoans

The Minoan civilization lasted from

about 2500 BC to about 1400 BC. The

Minoans are named for their legendary

king Minos. Their capital city was Knossos.

The palace at Knossos was enormous,

covering 5.5 acres (2.2 hectares)

of ground. Large towns spread around

other Minoan palaces. Houses were

often two stories high. They were built

with stones, timber, and mud bricks.

The Minoans painted their pottery and

walls with images of plants, flowers,

animals, and goddesses. They worshipped

a mother goddess.

The wealth of the Minoans was based

on seafaring and trading, especially trade

with the Middle East and Egypt. Pottery

made on Crete has been found in Egypt,

and ancient Egyptian pottery has been

found on Crete. A powerful navy protected

Knossos.

Mycenaeans

The Mycenaean civilization developed

in the 1500s BC, when Greek-speaking

people settled down on the Greek mainland.

The Mycenaeans conquered the

Minoans in about 1400 BC. Their civilization

is named after Mycenae, its most

important city.

A king headed the society. Kings built

fortresses with strong walls. This was

because the Mycenaeans fought many

wars, including—according to legend—

the TrojanWar. There were also landowners,

farmers, slaves, and priests. Like

the Minoans, the Mycenaeans decorated

their walls with paintings. They were

skilled jewelers and goldsmiths.

Mycenaean trade extended to Sicily,

Egypt, Palestine, Troy, Cyprus, and

The throne room of the palace in Knossos

still holds the throne of the ancient Minoan

kings.

Ancient Greek

mythology tells

of the Minotaur,

a fierce

monster of the

Minoan kingdom.

The

Minotaur had

the body of a

man and the

head of a bull.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Aegean civilization 33

Macedonia. The Mycenaeans imported

food, cloth, and copper. They probably

exported woolen goods, olive oil, timber,

and silver.

TheMycenaeans adopted theMinoan

system of writing on clay tablets. Unlike

theMinoan language, however, the

Mycenaean language has been translated.

It is the oldest known form of Greek.

Toward the end of the 1200s BC, the

Mycenaean civilization fell apart. Many

people moved away to other lands.

Scholars think that the decline may have

been due to drought, bad harvests, lack

of food, disease, or anger about the high

taxes the people had to pay.

In about 1100 BC Greece was taken over

by tribes from the north. These peoples

were the ancestors of the modern

Greeks. It is with them that the history

of ancient Greece began.

..More to explore

Aegean Sea • Greece • Greece, Ancient

Aegean Sea

An arm of the Mediterranean Sea, the

Aegean Sea lies between the countries of

Greece and Turkey. The region was the

site of two great ancient civilizations,

those of Crete and Greece.

The Aegean Sea is about 380 miles (610

kilometers) long and 185 miles (300

kilometers) wide. In the northeast it

connects to the Black Sea through a

series of narrow straits. The sea has hundreds

of islands stretching from Greece

to the shores of Asia. The islands are

actually the mountain peaks of an

underwater landmass called Aegeis.

The Aegean contains few nutrients so

very little plant life grows there. Its

warm waters, however, encourage fish to

enter it from the Black Sea to breed.

The chief products of the islands are

wheat, wine, oil, figs, raisins, honey,

vegetables, marble, and minerals. Fishing

and tourism are also important. Visitors

come to see the villages of

whitewashed houses as well as the ruins

of ancient civilizations.

The clear blue waters of the Aegean Sea

lap at the shores of a beach in Greece.

34 Aegean Sea BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Scientists believe that people began to

explore the Aegean about 15,000 years

ago. By the 1st century BC the Roman

Empire ruled over the area of the Aegean

and the Mediterranean. The region later

came under the control of the Byzantine

Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and

finally the independent country of

Greece.

#More to explore

Aegean Civilization • Greece

Aesop

Hundreds of stories called fables are

credited to a person named Aesop.

Ancient scholars claimed that Aesop

lived in the kingdom of Thrace in the

500s BC. It is now known that many of

the stories are even older and that Aesop

probably never existed. But the fables

that are credited to him are still used to

teach children.

The fables of Aesop were probably part

of an oral history—stories that were told

aloud. About 2,000 years ago the

Roman writer Phaedrus wrote down

some of the fables. Later the stories were

translated into other languages. An early

English-language version of the stories

was published in 1692. The fables familiar

to readers today were translated into

English during the 1800s. Most of the

fables are about animals with human

characteristics. Most end with a moral,

or a statement of the lesson that the

fable teaches.

#More to explore

Fable • Folktale

In Aesop’s fable of “The Hare and the Tortoise,”

a speedy hare teases a tortoise

about his slow pace. The tortoise challenges

the hare to a race. The hare is so sure that

he will win that he takes a nap. When he

wakes up, the tortoise has already won. The

moral is “Slow but steady wins the race.”

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Aesop 35

Afghanistan

The country of Afghanistan lies at the

heart of central Asia. The capital is

Kabul.

Geography

Afghanistan borders Iran, Pakistan,

Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan.

The Amu Darya river forms part of

the northern border. A narrow piece of

land called the Vakhan, orWakhan Corridor,

connects Afghanistan with China.

Afghanistan is a mountainous country.

The main range is the Hindu Kush, in

the northeast. North of the central

mountains are fertile plains. Deserts,

including the sandy Rigestan, lie in the

southwest. Afghanistan generally has a

dry climate with cold winters and hot

summers.

Plants and Animals

Southern Afghanistan has little vegetation.

Cedar, oak, walnut, alder, and ash

trees grow in the north. The mountains

have forests of pine and fir.

Wolves, foxes, hyenas, jackals, bears, and

wild goats roam the mountains.

Gazelles, wild dogs, and wild cats are

widespread. The country’s birds include

vultures and eagles.

People

The people of Afghanistan, known as

Afghans, are a mixture of many different

groups. The Pashtuns make up about

half of the population. Tajiks make up

about a fifth of the population. Other

ethnic groups include the Hazara,

Uzbeks, Chahar Aimaks, and Turkmen.

Pashto, the language of the Pashtuns,

and Dari (Persian) are the two official

languages, but others are spoken. Almost

all Afghans are Muslims.

Kabul is the largest city, but most

Afghans live in rural areas. Farmers live

in villages along the rivers. Nomads live

in tents and move from place to place.

Few people live in the mountains or the

deserts.

Economy

Afghanistan is one of the poorest countries

in the world. Most people grow

crops and raise animals for their own

use. The main food crops are wheat,

rice, grapes, barley, and corn. Sheep,

goats, and cattle are the main livestock.

Some farmers grow opium poppies,

which are used to make illegal drugs.

36 Afghanistan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Manufacturers make processed foods,

leather, fur, and textiles. The country has

deposits of natural gas, but warfare has

prevented Afghans from using them.

History

Major trade routes crossed what is now

Afghanistan thousands of years ago. The

Persians and Macedonian king Alexander

the Great ruled the land more

than 2,300 years ago. In the AD 600s

Arab invaders introduced the religion of

Islam. In 1219 Genghis Khan made the

area part of his Mongol Empire. Beginning

in the 1300s Turkic peoples, the

Mughal Empire, and the Persians ruled

parts of the land.

Ahmad Shah Durrani, a Pashtun leader,

unified Afghanistan under his rule in

1747. Great Britain invaded in the

1800s. After winning independence

from Britain in 1919, Afghanistan continued

as a monarchy. In 1973 Afghans

overthrew the king. The country’s new

leaders made Afghanistan a republic, led

by a prime minister.

Soviet Invasion

In 1978 Communists seized control of

Afghanistan’s government. The Soviet

Union invaded in December 1979. For

nearly a decade Islamic forces known as

mujahideen fought the Soviets. Millions

of Afghans left the country for Pakistan

and Iran. The Soviet Army left in 1989.

The Taliban

Various Afghan groups then fought for

control. By the late 1990s a group called

the Taliban had gained control over

most of Afghanistan. The Taliban ruled

according to a strict version of Islamic

law.

The Taliban angered other countries by

allowing terrorists to live in Afghanistan.

When the Taliban refused to hand over

suspected terrorist Osama bin Laden,

the United States and its allies bombed

Afghanistan in October 2001.Within

months the Taliban abandoned Kabul.

In 2004 Afghanistan adopted a new

constitution and elected a president. But

fighting continued between U.S. forces

and the Taliban.

..More to explore

Alexander the Great • bin Laden, Osama

• Communism • Islam • Kabul

• Mongol Empire • Mughal Empire

• Persia • Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics

The blue-tiled mosque in Mazar-e Sharif,

Afghanistan, is important to all Muslims. It

marks the tomb of !Ali, the son-in-law of the

prophet Muhammad.

Facts About

AFGHANISTAN

Population

(2008 estimate)

28,266,000

Area

249,347 sq mi

(645,807 sq km)

Capital

Kabul

Form of

government

Islamic republic

Major cities

Kabul, Kandahar

(Qandahar),

Herat, Mazar-e

Sharif

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Afghanistan 37

Africa

Africa is the world’s second largest continent.

More than 50 countries make up

the continent. More than one eighth of

the world’s population lives there.

Land and Climate

Africa’s landscape is varied. The northern

and western parts of the continent

are generally lower and more level than

the eastern and southern areas. Africa is

the oldest continent. Therefore most of

its mountains are not as high as those on

other continents. They have been worn

down over millions of years by wind and

water.

Africa’s most striking feature is a series

of great rifts, or troughs, in the east

known as the Rift Valley system. These

rifts span two continents, from western

Asia through eastern Africa. In Africa

they are deep, long, narrow valleys.

The world’s longest river, the Nile, flows

through northern Africa. The continent’s

other long rivers include the

Congo in central Africa, the Niger in the

west, and the Zambezi in the south.

Eastern Africa has a chain of lakes

known as the great lakes.

The continent is crossed midway by the

equator. This means that most of

Africa—the middle portion—lies within

the tropics, an area where it is hot yearround.

In the lowlands near the equator,

rain falls throughout the year. To the

north and south of this rainy area are

large regions that have a rainy season

followed by a dry season. It is very hot

A pair of giraffes is at home near Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.

38 Africa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Africa 39

and dry year-round in Africa’s major

deserts—the Sahara in the north and the

Kalahari and the Namib in the south.

Plants and Animals

The vegetation growing in each region

depends on the rainfall it receives. Near

the equator, where it rains year-round,

there are dense rain forests. These forests

contain thousands of different types of

trees and other plants. Between the rain

forests and the great deserts to the north

and south are the savannas. These are

open grasslands scattered with trees such

as acacias and baobabs. Few plants grow

in the deserts.

A serious problem in the savanna is that

the vegetation is being used up, leaving

the land bare. As the population

increases, more and more of the trees are

being used for fuel and for building supplies.

Some scientists are concerned that

removing the vegetation may cause the

savanna to become more desertlike.

Africa has many different kinds of animals,

though their numbers were greatly

reduced in the 1900s. This loss occurred

because of overhunting and because

large areas of their natural habitats were

taken over for farming. Today many

species are threatened with extinction.

Several countries have set aside land to

help protect wild animals. These wildlife

preserves are home to such animals as

elephants, giraffes, zebras, hippopotamuses,

antelopes, lions, jackals, and

hyenas. The rain forests support monkeys,

bats, flying squirrels, gorillas, leopards,

and mongooses. The native

animals of northern Africa include types

of wild sheep and goat, the African red

deer, and the jerboa (a small leaping

animal like a gerbil). Fish, birds, and

reptiles also are abundant.

People

Africa has the most physically varied

population in the world. Most of the

population consists of black peoples

belonging to almost 3,000 different ethnic

groups. In the north there are also

large numbers of Arabs. Mainly in the

south there are some descendants of

Europeans who established colonies in

Africa hundreds of years ago.

The number of languages spoken in

Africa probably exceeds 1,000, though

some are spoken by only a small number

of people. Arabic is the major language

of northern Africa. Most Africans who

live south of the equator speak one of

the many Bantu languages. In general,

Islam is the religion of northern Africa

South African boys pose in front

of a painting in Cape Town,

South Africa.

40 Africa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

and Christianity of southern Africa.

Traditional religions are also practiced.

Many African countries are comparatively

poor. In all African countries the

government provides public education.

But most governments cannot afford to

provide education for everyone. Millions

of Africans remain unable to read or

write. Much of the money for health

care comes from other countries. Infectious

diseases, such as malaria, continue

to be a serious problem in Africa, and

about 70 percent of all AIDS cases are in

Africa.

Economy

Most of Africa is underdeveloped. But

the continent has some of the world’s

largest shares of minerals, including oil,

natural gas, and coal; metals such as

gold; and gems such as diamonds.

Farming is a very important part of the

African economy. The chief food crops

vary by region. They include yams in the

tropical forests of the west; corn, millet,

and rice in the savannas; and corn in the

south. The tropical grasslands are also

suitable for cattle farming. Most African

countries do not produce enough food

to feed all their people. Therefore they

must import food.

In many parts of Africa certain crops are

produced for sale to other countries.

Africa is the world’s largest supplier of

cocoa beans, which are used in making

chocolate. Africa also exports much cotton,

sisal (a fiber), tea, coffee, palm oil,

yams, and peanuts, as well as wood from

the forests.

Although Africa still earns most of its

money by exporting raw materials and

food, many of its countries are developing

industries. Some industries process

raw materials produced in local farms

and forests. Others manufacture goods

for use in Africa. South Africa is the

most industrialized African country.

History

Africa is thought to be the place where

humans first developed, more than 1

million years ago. The African continent

had many kingdoms and empires during

its early history. One of the world’s earliest

civilizations, ancient Egypt, devel-

Facts About

AFRICA

Area

11,678,801 sq mi (30,247,722 sq km)

Population

(2008 estimate) 955,761,100

Largest Country by Area

Sudan: 966,757 sq mi (2,503,890 sq km)

Smallest Country by Area

Seychelles: 176 sq mi (455 sq km)

Largest Country by Population

Nigeria: (2008 estimate) 146,255,000

Smallest Country by Population

Seychelles: (2008 estimate) 85,500

Largest Cities

Cairo, Egypt; Lagos, Nigeria; Johannesburg,

South Africa; Kinshasa, Congo; Khartoum,

Sudan

Longest River

Nile River: 4,132 mi (6,650 km)

Largest Lake

Lake Victoria: 26,828 sq mi (69,785 sq km)

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Africa 41

oped in the lower Nile River valley

nearly 5,000 years ago.

The region called Nubia was south of

Egypt. The powerful Nubian kingdom

called Kush ruled Egypt for a while in

the 700s and 600s BC. In the AD 300s

the kingdom of Aksum conquered Kush

from the south.

The African people have a long history

of contact with other powers. In about

the 700s BC the Phoenicians established

the city of Carthage in what is now

Tunisia. In the 100s BC the Roman

Empire took control of part of North

Africa. Arabs from the Middle East

spread into Africa in the AD 600s. Great

trading states, including the Ghana,

Mali, and Songhai empires, flourished in

western Africa. In eastern and central

Africa, powerful city-states such as

Mogadishu and Mombasa traded with

Arabia.

The first Europeans to arrive in Africa

were the Portuguese, in the late 1400s.

Soon the British, the Dutch, and the

French had also set up towns and trading

centers. They traded slaves from

Africa to the Americas from the 1500s

to the early 1800s. The Europeans did

not actually take control of the African

territories they entered during this

period, however.

Starting in the late 1800s Britain,

France, Belgium, Portugal, and Germany

ruled most of Africa as colonies.

The Europeans took raw materials such

as minerals and timber from their colonies

and shipped them back to Europe.

The African people had no say in how

they were ruled. They were also often

forced off the best land so that the Europeans

could take it. Many African

people resisted European control

throughout the colonial period.

In the 1900s the colonies were finally

granted independence. Many African

countries faced great unrest after gaining

independence. Ethnic violence led to

many deaths, and in many cases civil

war broke out as individuals and groups

struggled to establish control. The poor

economies of the countries added to the

problems. In 2002 African countries

formed an organization called the African

Union to try to solve these problems.

International agencies such as the

United Nations helped, too.

#More to explore

African Union • Aksum • Colony

• Continent • Egypt, Ancient • Ghana

Empire • Human Origins • Kush • Mali

Empire • Nile River • Nubia • Rain

Forest • Sahara • Slavery • Songhai

Empire

Ruins of a casbah, or fort, stand in Morocco

in North Africa.

42 Africa BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

African

Americans

African Americans are people in the

United States who have ancestors from

Africa. Many African Americans have

non-African ancestors as well. African

Americans are also known as black

Americans.

Slavery

Most African Americans have ancestors

who were slaves. Slaves were people

taken from their African homelands and

shipped to the Americas. There, white

people forced them to work without pay

and in harsh conditions. English settlers

brought the first African slaves to the

colony of Virginia in the early 1600s. By

1790 black people made up nearly one

fifth of the population of the United

States. Most slaves lived and worked on

plantations, or large farms, in the South.

Many people called abolitionists worked

to end slavery. These included black

people as well as white people. Harriet

Tubman, a black abolitionist, organized

the Underground Railroad, which was a

way for slaves to escape to the North.

The American CivilWar

The American CivilWar broke out in

1861. This was a war between the

Northern and Southern states, partly

over the issue of slavery. In 1863 President

Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation

Proclamation. This document

freed the slaves in the Southern states.

The North won the CivilWar in 1865.

That year the 13th Amendment to the

U.S. Constitution ended slavery

throughout the United States. In 1868

the 14th Amendment gave African

Americans U.S. citizenship. In 1870 the

15th Amendment guaranteed them the

right to vote.

Reconstruction

The period following the war was

known as Reconstruction. African

Americans were finally free, but most of

them lived in terrible poverty. In the

South many worked as sharecroppers.

This meant that they farmed a piece of

land owned by someone else. Their pay

was a share of the crops they produced.

In addition, African Americans continued

to suffer from discrimination (unfair

treatment) and violence. Schools and

other public places were often segregated.

This meant that blacks and whites

could not mix in those places. Violent

groups like the Ku Klux Klan kept most

blacks from voting in the South. These

groups also hurt or killed many blacks.

First Civil Rights Efforts

In the late 1800s a former slave named

Booker T.Washington became a powerful

voice for African Americans. He

believed in training African Americans

to do certain jobs so that they could find

work.

Other African American leaders disagreed

withWashington. W.E.B. Du

Bois thought that the government

should guarantee to blacks the same

rights that whites had. These

February is

Black History

Month in the

United States.

In that month

schools and

other organizations

help

everyone learn

about the African

American

experience.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA African Americans 43

rights—such as the right to vote or the

right to go to a public school—are called

civil rights. Du Bois and others formed

the National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People

(NAACP) to help African Americans to

gain full civil rights.

Great Migration

DuringWorldWar I (1914–18) large

numbers of African Americans began to

leave the South. They moved to cities in

the North andWest. There they hoped

to find jobs and to escape discrimination.

However, many were forced to live

in poor, segregated areas.

This movement from the South, called

the Great Migration, continued through

the 1960s. By 1970 about 6 million

African Americans had left the South.

Civil Rights Movement

By the 1950s the NAACP had begun to

use the court system to fight for civil

rights for African Americans. One major

success came in 1954. In that year the

U.S. Supreme Court outlawed segregation

in public schools.

These efforts soon turned into an organized

fight for equal rights. This was

called the civil rights movement. A Baptist

minister named Martin Luther King,

Jr., became the leader of the movement.

In 1963 he led a major protest called the

March onWashington.

In 1964 the U.S. Congress passed the

Civil Rights Act. This law banned discrimination

based on race in schools,

jobs, and many other areas.

Black Power Movement

Despite these successes, some African

Americans grew impatient with the

slow pace of change. They began a

African Americans at the 1968

Olympics show their support of

the black power movement with

a raised-fist salute.

In May 1954 the U.S. Supreme

Court ruled that segregation in

schools was illegal. Lawyers

George Hayes (left), Thurgood

Marshall (center), and James M.

Nabrit (right) join hands outside

the U.S. Supreme Court to celebrate

the decision.

44 African Americans BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

more extreme movement called the

black power movement. Malcolm X

and a group called the Black Panthers

were among the movement’s leaders.

They believed that blacks should use

violence, if necessary, to get power and

justice.

During the 1960s violent riots did break

out in black neighborhoods in many

cities. The African Americans who

rioted were angry about violent treatment

by police, a lack of jobs, and poor

housing.

Political Progress

After the 1960s the civil rights movement

broke into many separate groups.

Still, African American leaders continued

their work to end discrimination.

In addition, many African Americans

gained positions of power. In 1967

Thurgood Marshall became the first

African American justice of the U.S.

Supreme Court. In 2001 Colin Powell

became the first black U.S. secretary of

state, and in 2008 Barack Obama

became the first African American to be

elected president of the United States.

African Americans Today

In 2000 there were about 36 million

Americans with African roots. They

made up about 13 percent of the total

U.S. population. One quarter of African

Americans lived in poverty, and discrimination

against African Americans

remains a problem today. Nevertheless,

African Americans have made great

gains since the end of slavery more than

140 years ago.

..More to explore

Civil Rights Movement • King, Martin

Luther, Jr. • Malcolm X • Marshall,

Thurgood • National Association for the

Advancement of Colored People

• Slavery • Tubman, Harriet

•Washington, Booker T.

African National

Congress

A political party in South Africa, the

African National Congress (ANC) supported

the rights of black and mixedrace

people through the apartheid era.

Nelson Mandela, the first black president

of South Africa, belonged to the

ANC.

In the early 1900s whites ruled South

Africa. Blacks made up most of the

Author Toni Morrison writes about the experiences

of African Americans. She won the

Nobel prize for literature in 1993.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA African National Congress 45

country’s population but did not have

equal rights. In 1912 black Africans who

wanted equality formed the party that

became the ANC.

In 1950 the South African government

introduced apartheid. This system kept

whites and nonwhites apart and denied

nonwhites almost all their legal rights.

The ANC protested. In 1960 the party

was banned, but its members continued

to protest, sometimes violently. The

government arrested ANC leaders,

including Mandela. In 1964 Mandela

was sent to prison.

During the 1970s and 1980s the ANC

gained support among South Africa’s

people. In 1990 the government lifted

the ban on the party and freed Mandela.

In 1994 an election open to all races was

held. The ANC won control of the legislature,

and Mandela became South Africa’s

first black president.

#More to explore

Apartheid • Mandela, Nelson • South

Africa

African Union

In 2002, 53 African countries joined

together to form the African Union

(AU). The leaders of these countries felt

that the union would benefit all the

countries’ people, governments, and

businesses. The headquarters of the AU

is in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

The AU took the place of the Organization

of African Unity (OAU). The OAU

had been formed in 1963. Around that

time Africa was undergoing great

changes. Colonies that had been under

the control of European powers were

Thabo Mbeki stands in front of a

board showing election results.

Mbeki followed Nelson Mandela

as leader of the ANC.

People carry pictures of African

leaders at a ceremony celebrating

the first meeting of the African

Union.

46 African Union BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

becoming independent countries. The

new countries faced many challenges.

The countries set up the OAU so that

they could help each other.

African leaders formed the AU to

improve what the OAU had been doing.

One of the AU’s goals is to promote

unity, or togetherness, between African

countries. Other goals are to defend the

member countries and to encourage economic

development. The AU also works

for peace and stability, the end of hunger,

and the protection of human rights.

The leaders of the AU hope to bring all

of Africa under a single, central government

someday. The AU already has its

own parliament, or lawmaking body.

The leaders are also planning a court

system for all of Africa. In addition, they

want the countries of the AU to use a

single form of money.

#More to explore

Addis Ababa • Africa

Aging

All living things, from their first

moment of existence, begin the process

of aging, or growing older. As children

move toward adulthood, they become

taller, stronger, and more independent.

At some point in adulthood, however, a

slow decline begins. The onset of aging

happens at different times for different

people. Most people start to feel some

effects of aging in their 40s or 50s.

As people age, their hair often thins and

turns gray, and their skin wrinkles. Their

muscles begin to shrink and their bones

become more fragile. They often lose

some of their height or part of their

vision or hearing. They think more

slowly, and their short-term memory

may suffer. Scientists are not exactly sure

what causes the effects of aging. The

cells of the body might have a built-in

time limit. That limit would determine

how long the cells can remain healthy

and able to create new cells.

Several factors affect how long people

live. One factor is heredity. Long lives

seem to run in families. Another factor

is lifestyle. Physically fit people who do

not smoke will probably age more slowly

and live longer than others. Poverty also

affects how long people live. People who

cannot afford to eat well and go to a

doctor when they are sick may die

before they become old.

Animals age at different rates and live

for different lengths of time. These aging

People of all ages can enjoy spending time

together.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Aging 47

rates depend on the type of animal. Rats

may be said to be old at about 2 years,

dogs at about 10 years, and elephants at

about 40 years. For humans, people in

their 60s and older are commonly considered

to be old.

Agriculture

Agriculture is another word for farming.

It includes both growing and harvesting

crops and raising animals, or livestock.

Agriculture provides the food and many

of the raw materials that humans need

to survive.

Raising Plants and Animals

The products of agriculture that people

eat come from both plants and animals.

Plant foods include fruits, vegetables,

and grains. Meat, dairy (milk) products,

and eggs are some of the most common

animal foods.

Plants and animals also supply such

natural materials as cotton, flax, wool,

and hides.Workers process these materials

into thread, cloth, and leather. Then

people use the materials to make such

things as clothing, draperies, shoes, furniture

coverings, and many other items.

Growing trees is another important agricultural

job. Lumber from tree farms is

used to make buildings, furniture, boats,

and many other things. Christmas trees

often come from tree farms, too.

Location andWeather

People practice agriculture on farms, on

ranches, and in orchards all over the

world. Farmers raise crops and livestock

in every climate and in all kinds of different

soil. Some regions receive a lot of

sunlight or rainfall. Others have colder

or drier weather. All places have their

own kinds of agriculture.

Plants and livestock need air, water, and

nourishment to stay alive. If a plant does

not have the kind of soil it needs, it may

die. Similarly, animals also need to have

the right climate and the right food to

survive. Farmers try to raise the kinds of

livestock and plants that will do well in

their region. If they do not have perfect

natural conditions, they try to create the

best conditions possible. For example,

many farmers in dry areas use irrigation,

or artificial watering.

History

Humans may have begun taming animals

and growing small crops as early as

10,000 years ago. However, many early

people were nomads, or wanderers who

moved from place to place. They found

their foods in the wild as they traveled.

They hunted, fished, and gathered nuts,

An ox helps a man plant rice in Vietnam. berries, and roots.

48 Agriculture BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Eventually people learned to keep some

animals in herds. They stopped roaming

and began to settle in one place for longer

times. They built homes and started to

grow their own crops on the land around

them. The crops provided a more

dependable food supply than hunting

and gathering. Small settlements grew

into villages, towns, and cities.

About 200 years ago the Industrial

Revolution brought great changes to

agriculture. In the past people had used

hand tools and animals to help them

plant and harvest. Machines invented

during the Industrial Revolution made

that work easier. As a result, not as many

workers were needed on farms. Many

people moved away from farms to cities

in search of jobs.

Today most agriculture takes place far

outside big cities. Huge companies control

much of the world’s farmland.

Crops grow on large plots of land with

the help of irrigation and special chemicals.

Farmers raise healthy livestock with

the help of medicine. In poor countries,

however, many people still depend on

their own small farms to survive.

#More to explore

Industrial Revolution • Irrigation • Soil

AIDS

AIDS is a serious disease. The name

stands for acquired immunodeficiency

syndrome. Millions of people have died

from AIDS since the 1980s. Scientists

have not yet found a cure, but they can

treat the disease effectively.

Causes

Tiny particles called viruses cause many

diseases. The particular virus that causes

AIDS is called human immunodeficiency

virus (HIV). HIV enters the body

through contact with infected blood or

other body fluids. Coughing, sneezing,

and handshaking do not spread the

virus.

HIV kills helper T cells in the body.

Helper T cells are a type of white blood

Some farmers use special irrigation systems

to water their crops.

The AIDS Memorial Quilt is displayed in

Washington, D.C. The quilt honors people

who have died of the disease.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA AIDS 49

cell. They are part of the body’s immune

system, which fights off disease. The

body loses its ability to fight off disease

when its helper T cells die.

Symptoms

A new HIV infection often causes symptoms,

or signs, that are similar to those

of influenza (flu). They usually last only

a week or two. After they clear up, an

infected person may show no signs of

illness for years. However, such a person

can still pass the virus to other people.

Because of their weak immune systems,

most HIV-infected people eventually

come down with other infections. A

person who has these infections is said

to have AIDS.

The most common infections include

tuberculosis and a certain type of

pneumonia. People with AIDS also

frequently develop a cancer called Kaposi

sarcoma. The AIDS virus may also attack

the nervous system and cause brain and

eye damage. Death often follows.

Prevention and Treatment

People can prevent HIV infection. The

main way to do this is to keep out of

contact with possibly infected blood or

body fluids.

If a person is infected, certain drugs can

stop HIV from doing damage. Drug

treatment has added years to the lives of

many people with HIV infections.

#More to explore

Disease, Human • Immune System

• Virus

Ailey, Alvin

Alvin Ailey was a famous modern

dancer. He was also a highly respected

choreographer—a person who creates

dances and directs dancers. His dance

company toured around the world,

bringing recognition to African Americans

in dance.

Ailey was born in Rogers, Texas, on

January 5, 1931. His family moved to

Los Angeles when he was 12. Ailey

began to study modern dance at the

Lester Horton Dance Theater in 1949.

He became the company’s director and

choreographer in 1953.

In 1954 Ailey moved to New York City,

where he studied with modern dance

pioneer Martha Graham and others. He

created the Alvin Ailey American Dance

Theater in 1958. The troupe performed

many kinds of works, but Ailey particularly

wanted to bring African American

culture to modern dance.

Members of the Alvin Ailey American

Dance Theater rehearse a scene from the

dance called Revelations.

AIDS exists

everywhere in

the world.

However, the

disease is a

particularly

big problem in

parts of

Africa.

50 Ailey, Alvin BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

In 1958 Ailey achieved his first big success

as a choreographer with Blues Suite.

One of his most famous dances is Revelations

(1960), which is set to African

American spirituals. His works combine

ballet and modern dance.

In 1965 Ailey retired from dancing, but

he continued choreographing. He died

in New York City on December 1,

1989. His company remained in operation

after his death.

#More to explore

Dance • Graham, Martha

Air

All living things need air to breathe.

Animals and plants would die without

it. Air also holds airplanes and kites

above the ground, and it is used to

inflate tires and balloons. Air surrounds

Earth as the atmosphere. Air has no

color, taste, or odor. Although air is

invisible, people can hear air when the

wind howls. And they can feel air brush

against their skin when the wind blows.

Air consists of a mixture of gases. These

gases consist of tiny particles called molecules.

They are so small that they cannot

be seen. Molecules are combinations

of different chemical elements. In air the

most common of these elements are

nitrogen and oxygen. Oxygen is an

important component of air because

humans and other animals need it to

survive. In addition to nitrogen and

oxygen, air consists of small amounts of

the gases argon, neon, helium, and

methane. Besides gases, air also contains

water vapor, dust, pollen, and bacteria.

The water vapor in air is the source of

rain and snow.

The oxygen in air comes from plants.

Through a process called respiration, or

breathing, humans and other animals

take in oxygen and force out carbon

dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a molecule

made of oxygen and carbon. Plants take

in the carbon dioxide and use it to make

food. This is part of the process known

as photosynthesis. Plants break down

the molecule, use the carbon, and then

release the oxygen into the air. In this

way the carbon dioxide and oxygen in

the air are constantly used and replaced.

#More to explore

Atmosphere • Molecule • Photosynthesis

Air Force

An air force is the part of a country’s

military that conducts warfare in the

skies. Its pilots fly airplanes and other

aircraft armed with weapons. They use

these aircraft to attack enemy aircraft as

A kite takes flight on a windy day.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Air Force 51

well as targets on the ground and in the

water, mostly during wars.

An air force is usually one of several

branches of a country’s military. In the

United States the other major branches

are the Army and the Navy (which

includes the Marine Corps).

Basic Functions and Aircraft

Most air forces perform a variety of military

functions, or jobs. During wars an

air force uses aircraft to observe the

enemy’s activities. It also gathers information

about possible battlefields and

targets.

Another basic job of an air force is to

gain control of the air over a particular

area. To do this, it uses aircraft called

fighters to drive away or destroy enemy

aircraft. Fighters are jet airplanes

designed to fly very fast. They can also

change direction quickly. Fighters carry

missiles, machine guns, or other weapons

on board.

An air force also uses aircraft to drop

bombs. It often uses large aircraft called

bombers to bomb targets in an enemy’s

country. It uses attack aircraft to help its

country’s troops fighting on the ground.

Pilots fly attack aircraft close to the

ground while bombing or shooting at

enemy troops below. Attack aircraft are

smaller and lighter than bombers.

Another duty of an air force is to move

troops and military supplies from place

to place. It normally uses helicopters or

large transport planes to do this.

History

Inventors created the first successful

airplanes in the early 1900s. Several

European countries used fighter aircraft

and bombers duringWorldWar I, from

1914 to 1918. Air warfare was a major

part ofWorldWar II in the 1940s.

Air forces have used many new inventions

to improve their aircraft and weapons

over the years. For example, the jet

engine was invented in the middle of the

1900s. This allowed planes to fly much

faster. Computer technology has also

helped in many ways. It has made it

possible to bomb faraway targets with

great accuracy. Computers are also used

to help train pilots to fly airplanes and

to keep airplanes on course.

#More to explore

Airplane • Army • Bomb • Navy

Airplane

Humans have always envied birds for

their ability to fly. In the 1700s and

U.S. Air Force planes called F-16 Fighting

Falcons fly in formation.

The United

Kingdom’s

Royal Air

Force was

formed in

1918. It was

the world’s first

air force.

52 Airplane BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

1800s humans flew in lighter-than-air

ships such as balloons, but not until

1903 did people build the first heavierthan-

air craft—the airplane.

The term airplane, which is often shortened

to plane, usually refers to any type

of power-driven aircraft that has fixed

wings and is heavier than air. An airplane

moves through the air with the

help of its engine and wings. The wings

are shaped in a particular way so that air

flows over them and gives them lift. By

contrast, balloons and airships are lifted

by gases that are lighter than air. Helicopters

are lifted by spinning blades.

Types of Airplanes

Airplanes can be grouped into many

different categories. One way of classifying

them is by the number of wings they

have. Many early airplanes were

biplanes, meaning that they had two

pairs of wings, one above the other.

Triplanes were also built in the early

days of aviation. Today most airplanes

are monoplanes, with one pair of wings.

Most airplanes take off and land from

dry land, but some operate on water.

Seaplanes have special landing gear that

supports them in the water.

Airplanes can also be grouped by their

purpose. Airplanes used for military

purposes by the armed forces include

fighters, bombers, spy planes, troop

transports, and tankers that refuel other

military planes while in flight. The

familiar airliners that carry large numbers

of people from city to city are called civil,

or commercial, aircraft.Other kinds of

Modern passenger airplanes can carry hundreds of people to almost anywhere in the world.

Seaplanes have special landing gear that

allow them to take off from and land on the

water.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Airplane 53

civil aircraft carry cargo. Still others are

flown by their owners as a hobby.

Parts of an Airplane

To understand how an airplane can fly,

it is first necessary to know its different

parts. The major parts are the airframe,

the power system, and the flight controls

and instruments.

Airframe

The airframe includes the fuselage,

wings, tail, and landing gear. The fuselage

is the body of the aircraft. It consists

of a rigid frame and a covering of aluminum,

magnesium, or molded plastic or

fiberglass.

The wings of an airplane have several

moving parts. Flaps and slats are hinged

parts that the pilot adjusts to increase

the size of the wing surface. This

changes the amount of force made by

the wing. Ailerons are hinged parts that

the pilot moves to turn the airplane.

The rear of the plane is called the tail.

The horizontal stabilizer is a part of the

54 Airplane BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tail that often looks like a small wing. It

prevents the plane from pitching, or

bucking up and down. The elevator is

hinged to the horizontal stabilizer. It

raises or lowers the nose, or front end, of

the plane. The vertical stabilizer often

looks like a fin. It prevents the aircraft

from yawing, or swinging from side to

side. The rudder is connected to the

vertical stabilizer. It controls side-to-side

movement.

The landing gear consists of rubber tires

and shock-absorbing devices. Most

planes have two main wheels or sets of

wheels and another wheel to support the

tail. Some planes have wheels that fold

up when the plane is in the air.

Power System

A plane’s power system includes one or

more engines and sometimes propellers.

The two main types of engines are

reciprocating engines and jet engines. A

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Airplane 55

reciprocating, or piston, engine turns a

propeller. The turning of the propeller

provides most of the power to move the

plane forward. Reciprocating engines

are usually found on smaller airplanes.

A jet engine moves a plane forward by

shooting exhaust gases out the back. Jet

engines are common on large

commercial planes and military aircraft.

Some small planes have a turboprop

engine, which is a jet engine that turns

a propeller.

Flight Controls and Instruments

Flight controls help a pilot to regulate

the movement and position of an airplane.

The control wheel or stick is used

to adjust the elevator and the ailerons.

Foot pedals allow the pilot to control the

rudder. A throttle controls the engine

power. The pilot also controls the wing

flaps and slats.

Flight instruments are used for navigation,

checking engine performance, and

monitoring other equipment. In addition

to these instruments, there are a

variety of indicators that monitor the

engines and other parts of the plane’s

mechanical and electrical systems.

How Airplanes Fly

The science of flight is called aerodynamics.

Four main aerodynamic forces

act on an airplane in flight. They are

called drag, thrust, gravity (or weight),

and lift.

As a plane flies, the air slows it down.

This is the effect of drag. To overcome

drag a plane needs the forward-moving

force of thrust. Thrust is produced by

the plane’s engines or propellers.

An airplane is heavier than air. It will fall

to the ground under the influence of

gravity unless lift is applied. The plane’s

wings are able to produce the necessary

lift because of their shape. The upper

surface is curved, while the lower surface

is flat. To get past the curved surface, the

air that flows over the wing has to go

farther—and therefore faster—than the

air that flows under it. This creates a

difference in air pressure between the

upper and lower surfaces as the plane

moves forward. The air underneath is

under greater pressure and therefore

pushes the wing up. The faster the air

flows past the wings, the greater the lift.

For this reason, an airplane takes off

most easily when it faces the wind.

Pilots use flaps and slats to change the

amount of lift. Lowering the flaps

increases the curved surface of the wing,

which provides more lift for takeoff.

Slats also increase lift by allowing air to

flow more smoothly over the wing. Rais-

A plane with turboprop engine uses both jet

power and propellers. Turboprop engines

are used only in small planes.

56 Airplane BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ing the flaps reduces lift, which slows

down the plane for landing.

History

Before humans took to the air in airplanes,

they flew in lighter-than-air

craft. In 1783 the Montgolfier brothers

of France made the first balloon that

could carry people high into the air.

Their balloon rose because they filled it

with hot air, which is lighter than

unheated air.

The 1800s saw much experimentation

in both lighter-than-air and heavierthan-

air craft. Several people worked

with gliders to establish the principles of

airplane design. Gliders are similar to

airplanes but they have no motor. Once

they are launched, they move through

the air as a plane does.

Early Aviation

On December 17, 1903, in Kitty Hawk,

North Carolina, Orville andWilbur

Wright made the first flight in an

engine-powered airplane. TheWright

brothers had experimented with gliders.

They chose the North Carolina coast for

their testing because of its strong winds.

Their first plane flight, with Orville

piloting, lasted 12 seconds and covered

120 feet (37 meters). By 1905 the

Wright brothers had improved their

plane to the point that it could fly 24

miles (39 kilometers) in 38 minutes.

During WorldWar I (1914–18) airplanes

began to change the nature of

war. Planes were first used to observe the

enemy from the air. Eventually countries

discovered that they could use planes for

dropping bombs. Pilots also learned to

shoot at each other in the sky.

Development of Modern Aviation

After the war people began to use planes

for commercial purposes, including

delivering mail. Pilots also began to

experiment with seeing how far they

could fly. A U.S. airmail pilot named

Charles Lindbergh became famous in

1927 for making the first solo flight over

the Atlantic Ocean.

Jet-powered aircraft were introduced on

a small scale duringWorldWar II

(1939–45). After the war jet planes were

improved and came into wide use.

Regular passenger jet services across the

Atlantic were started in 1958. Today

passenger jets fly people all around the

world every day.

Air Travel Safety

Airline safety became an important issue

in the second half of the 20th century.

In the United States a government

agency called the Federal Aviation

An early airplane flies over Chicago,

Illinois, in 1911.

Only a few

experimental

airplanes have

used rocket

engines. A

rocketpowered

airplane

called

the X-15 set

records for

speed and

height of

flight.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Airplane 57

Administration (FAA) was created in

1958 to monitor aircraft and to investigate

accidents. The FAA also operates

the air traffic control system, which

keeps planes out of each other’s way.

Human error, equipment failure, and

weather can cause accidents. But flying

is still far safer than traveling by car.

#More to explore

Balloon • Glider • Helicopter •Wright,

Wilbur and Orville

Airship

The large aircraft that are often seen

floating over sporting events are commonly

known as blimps. These are actually

a type of lighter-than-air craft called

an airship. Airships were developed from

principles of ballooning. Like balloons,

they are filled with a gas that allows

them to float in the air. Unlike balloons,

airships are driven by engine-powered

propellers and steered with rudders. For

this reason they are also called

dirigibles—after the French word

diriger, meaning “to steer.”

Most airships are long and cigar-shaped.

Some airships have a rigid frame supporting

the craft’s surface fabric. Nonrigid

airships are simply big balloons

that rely on the gas to keep their shape.

Nonrigid airships are also known as

blimps. The main section of an airship is

filled with a gas that is lighter than air.

Helium is the most commonly used gas.

A car, or gondola, suspended below the

gas balloon holds the airship’s crew and

passengers.

Airships rely on several different features

to enable them to fly. The gas inside the

ship lifts the craft into the air. Engines

then propel the craft forward. The pilot

uses a rudder to steer the craft. Most of

the ship is filled with the lighter-than-air

gas. There are also compartments filled

with normal air. The pilot can make the

ship go up or down by controlling the

amount of air in these compartments.

The first propeller-driven airship flew in

1852 in France. Its engine was powered

by steam. The first rigid airship, with a

body made of aluminum, was built in

Germany in 1897. Ferdinand von Zeppelin,

the famous German builder, completed

his first rigid airship in 1900.

Akimel O’odham

#see Pima.

Akmola,

Kazakhstan

#see Astana.

A colorful airship flies over Dodger Stadium

in Los Angeles, California.

58 Airship BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Aksum

Aksum, or Axum, was a powerful trading

empire that flourished in northeastern

Africa hundreds of years ago. Aksum

also was the name of the kingdom’s

capital. It remains a city in northern

Ethiopia.

Aksum’s location between the Red Sea

and the Nile River helped to make it

one of the most important and wealthy

trading centers of its day. The items that

moved in and out of its ports included

ivory, hippopotamus hides, perfumes,

gold, and animals.

The kingdom was also known for its

architecture. Still standing in the central

square of the city of Aksum are some of

the carved granite obelisks made in the

kingdom. An obelisk is a tall, thin pillar

with a pyramid at the top. (TheWashington

Monument is an obelisk.) Some

Aksum obelisks may have marked

underground tombs of the kingdom’s

rulers.

Aksum expanded as it grew more powerful.

In the AD 300s Aksum conquered

the kingdom of Kush to the north.

Aksum’s rulers then pushed west across

the Red Sea into southern Arabia. In the

600s and 700s the kingdom’s hold

weakened as the Muslim Arabs emerged

as a power.

The people had been Christian since

the 300s. The Arabs allowed them to

keep the Christian religion because they

had once given refuge to followers of

Islam’s founder, the prophet

Muhammad. Today Aksum is

considered a holy city of the Ethiopian

Orthodox church.

#More to explore

Arabian Peninsula • Eastern Orthodox

Churches • Ethiopia • Islam • Kush

• Muhammad

One of the obelisks from the kingdom of

Aksum stands in the modern city of the

same name.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Aksum 59

Alabama

The state of Alabama is located

in the center of the Deep South

of the United States. Because of its location,

the land that is now Alabama

played a role in many of the major conflicts

that shaped the United States.

These included battles with Native

Americans over control of the area, the

American CivilWar, and the civil rights

movement of the 1960s. Montgomery is

Alabama’s capital.

Geography

Alabama lies in the southeastern United

States. The southern parts of the Appalachian

Mountains cover most of northern

Alabama. The land is rugged, with forested

hills and ridges. Southern Alabama

is a mostly flat plain. The climate is

mild. Summers are long and warm.

Winters are short and moderate.

People

People of European ancestry make up

almost three quarters of Alabama’s

population. About one quarter of the

population is African American. Slightly

more than half of the people live in cities

or towns. Birmingham is Alabama’s

largest city and industrial center. Mobile

is a port city on Mobile Bay. Tuscaloosa

is the home of the University of Alabama’s

main campus.

Economy

Trade and tourism are important service

industries in Alabama. Tourists are

drawn to Alabama because of its warm

weather and recreational activities.

Manufacturing, especially of paper and

metal products, is also important.

Soybeans are a valuable crop in Alabama.

Other farm products include peanuts,

cotton , corn, and pecans. Shellfish

and fish, such as shrimp and catfish, are

also harvested.

History

The early Native Americans of Alabama

are sometimes called mound builders.

They lived in villages built around large

earthen mounds. By the 1700s the

Cherokee, the Creek, the Choctaw, and

the Chickasaw were the main Native

American tribes in the region.

60 Alabama BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Spaniard Hernando de Soto

explored the area in about 1540. In the

early 1700s the French built settlements

in several places. In 1763 France gave its

land in North America, including Alabama,

to Great Britain. During the

American Revolution Spanish troops

captured Mobile. In 1783 Britain surrendered

Alabama to the United States.

In 1813 the United States seized Mobile

from the Spanish.

Alabama became a state in 1819. It prospered

because of cotton farming. Black

slaves did most of the work on the cotton

farms. Alabama, like other Southern

states, feared that the U.S. government

would outlaw slavery. In 1861 Alabama

withdrew from the United States. It

joined with other Southern states to

form a separate government called the

Confederacy. U.S. forces defeated the

Confederacy in the CivilWar, which

ended in 1865. Alabama rejoined the

United States in 1868.

Although the CivilWar ended slavery,

African Americans continued to struggle

in Alabama. Several major events of the

civil rights movement took place in the

state. Martin Luther King, Jr., led a bus

boycott in Montgomery in 1955–56. In

1965 he led a protest march from Selma

to Montgomery. New laws passed during

the civil rights movement helped

improve conditions for African Americans

in Alabama. Since the 1960s many

black candidates have been elected to

public office in the state.

..More to explore

American CivilWar • Appalachian

Mountains • Civil Rights Movement

• Confederate States of America • King,

Martin Luther, Jr. • Montgomery

A machine called a combine is used to harvest ripe cotton. Cotton is an important crop in

Alabama.

Facts About

ALABAMA

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

4,447,100—

rank, 23rd state;

(2008 estimate)

4,661,900

Capital

Montgomery

Area

52,419 sq mi

(135,765 sq

km)—rank, 30th

state

Statehood

December 14,

1819

Motto

Audemus Jura

Nostra Defendere

(We Dare

Maintain Our

Rights)

State bird

Yellowhammer

State flower

Camellia

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Alabama 61

Alamo

In the 1830s the people of Texas fought

several battles to gain their independence

from Mexico. One of the most

famous battles took place at the chapel

of a mission in San Antonio called the

Alamo. More than 180 Texas fighters

died while fighting against soldiers from

Mexico. When Texans later won their

independence from Mexico, their battle

cry was, “Remember the Alamo!”

The Mission San Antonio de Valero was

founded in about 1716 by Roman

Catholic priests. They abandoned it

before the end of the century. Afterward

the chapel became known as the Alamo

(Spanish for “cottonwood”) because it

stood near a grove of cottonwood trees.

In 1835, during Texas’ war for independence

from Mexico, the Texans captured

San Antonio. Afterward, however, fewer

than 150 men were left there to defend

the city. A few others arrived later,

including the frontiersman Davy Crockett.

On February 22, 1836, about 5,000

Mexican soldiers arrived in San Antonio.

On February 23 the Texas troops moved

into the Alamo, prepared to resist an

attack. The Mexicans surrounded the

Alamo and the battle began.

On the morning of March 6 the Mexicans

stormed the building through a

hole in the outer wall.Within a few

hours all of the defenders were dead.

Texas finally gained independence later

that year, and in 1845 it became a U.S.

state.

#More to explore

Crockett, Davy • Texas

The Alamo has been preserved as a historic site. It is a reminder of the time when Texans

fought for independence from Mexico.

62 Alamo BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Alaska

The U.S. state of Alaska is an immense

region of great natural beauty but few

people. Nicknamed the Last Frontier,

Alaska includes rugged coastlines, massive

glaciers, and the tallest mountains in

North America. The capital is Juneau.

Geography

Alaska is the largest state in the country.

When it became a state, the land area of

the United States increased by one fifth.

The most northerly state, Alaska is not

connected to the other 48 states of the

mainland United States. Instead, it juts

westward from Canada into the Arctic

Ocean and the Bering Sea. The Aleutian

Island chain extends southwest from

mainland Alaska. To the southeast is a

strip of land called the panhandle, which

borders the Canadian province of British

Columbia.

Northern Alaska lies within the Arctic

regions. Along the northern coast is flat,

treeless land called tundra. The ground

there stays frozen year-round. South of

the tundra are the mountains of the

Brooks Range. The middle part of

Alaska is a vast plain with many forests,

marshes, and lakes. The Yukon, Alaska’s

largest river, flows through this region.

Two mountain chains—the Alaska

Range and the Aleutian Range—curve

along Alaska’s southern coast. Mount

McKinley, in the Alaska Range, rises to

a height of 20,320 feet (6,194 meters).

It is the highest point in North America.

People

Alaska’s population is spread

unevenly throughout the state,

with vast areas having few or no

people. More than a third of Alaskans

live in or around Anchorage, the largest

city. Native Alaskans—Eskimo (Inuit),

Aleut, and American Indians—make up

about one sixth of the population. Common

nationalities among the rest of the

people include Russian, Filipino, Japanese,

and Chinese.

Economy

Alaska’s economy is based on oil, tourism,

and fishing. Oil has brought Alaska

so much wealth that the state has no

income tax. In addition, every year the

state gives each resident some of the

money earned from oil sales. Service

businesses such as airlines, restaurants,

and hotels cater to tourists. About one

fourth of all employed Alaskans work

for the federal, state, or local government.

Salmon is one of the state’s lead-

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Alaska 63

ing products. Other catches include

crab, halibut, herring, and shrimp. The

main manufacturing industry is fish and

seafood processing.

History

Hunters and gatherers from Asia first

settled in what is now Alaska thousands

of years ago. In 1728 a Russian expedition

led by the Danish explorer Vitus

Bering arrived there. In 1784 Russia

established a settlement and fur-trading

post on Kodiak Island, off the southern

coast. Russia owned Alaska until the

United States bought it in 1867. U.S.

Secretary of State William H. Seward

negotiated the deal. Because many

Americans thought the purchase was a

waste of money, Alaska was sometimes

called Seward’s Folly.

Gold discoveries in neighboring parts of

Canada and in Alaska itself drew people

to the area in the 1890s and early 1900s.

A half century later, in 1959, Alaska

became the 49th state in the Union.

Oil discoveries, especially along the Arctic

coast, changed the state’s economy.

In the 1970s the Trans-Alaska pipeline

was built to transport oil from the Arctic

oil fields. The pipeline made Alaska second

only to Texas in U.S. oil production.

In the early 21st century

environmental groups, government officials,

and business leaders debated

whether to open up more governmentowned

land in Alaska to oil exploration.

..More to explore

Aleut • Arctic Regions • Eskimo

• Juneau • Tundra

A visitor looks across a bay at a glacier in Alaska’s Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park.

Facts About

ALASKA

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

626,932—rank,

48th state; (2008

estimate)

686,293—rank,

47th state

Capital

Juneau

Area

663,267 sq mi

(1,717,854 sq

km)—rank, 1st

state

Statehood

January 3, 1959

Motto

North to the

Future

State bird

Willow

ptarmigan

State flower

Forget-me-not

64 Alaska BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Albania

The Republic of Albania in eastern

Europe is the smallest country on the

Balkan Peninsula. During most of its

history Albania has been ruled by other

countries and empires. The capital is

Tirane.

Geography

Albania is bordered by Greece, Macedonia,

Kosovo, and Montenegro. Its

western border is the Adriatic Sea. Most

of Albania is mountainous. The highest

mountain is Korab, at 9,026 feet (2,751

meters). Albania’s only lowland area lies

along the coast. The longest river is the

Drin. Albania has warm, dry summers

and mild, wet winters. Temperatures are

more extreme in the mountain regions

than on the coast.

Plants and Animals

Forests once covered much of Albania.

After centuries of clearing and livestock

grazing, many areas now have only

bushes and scrub. The remaining forests

have oak, beech, and pine trees.

Hunting has left few wild animals,

except in the remote forests. Among

them are wolves, jackals, wild hogs,

bears, deer, and chamois (goatlike animals).

The mild climate attracts many

birds, however.

People and Culture

The people of Albania are divided into

two major groups: the northern Gegs

and the southern Tosks. Each group

speaks its own dialect, or variation, of

the Albanian language. Minority groups,

including Vlachs and Greeks, make up

about 8 percent of Albania’s population.

The citadel, or fortress, at Kruje was the

stronghold of Albania’s national hero,

Skanderbeg. In the 1400s he fought to keep

the Ottoman Turks from invading Albania.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Albania 65

About 39 percent of Albanians are Muslim.

Others are Eastern Orthodox,

Roman Catholic, or not religious.

Economy

The Albanian economy is one of the

poorest in Europe. More than half of the

workers are farmers. Albania’s chief

crops are vegetables, grains, melons, and

potatoes. Sheep, goats, cattle, and poultry

are the major livestock.

Albania manufactures textiles, glass

products, leather, iron, steel, and office

machinery. Its mines provide chromium

and copper. The southwestern part of

the country is rich in petroleum (oil)

and natural gas.

History

The Illyrians, ancient ancestors of the

Albanians, were likely the first people to

live in what is now Albania. The Gegs

were Illyrians who settled in the north.

The Tosks were Illyrians of the south.

The Romans invaded in the 100s BC. In

AD 395 the Roman Empire split into

two halves. Albania was in the eastern

part, the Byzantine Empire. Bulgaria

and Serbia later controlled the area.

In the late 1300s Albania became part of

the Islamic Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman

Turks ruled the country for almost

500 years. Albania gained its independence

in 1912.

In 1928 Albania’s president declared

himself King Zog I. After Italy invaded

Albania in April 1939, Zog fled the

country. Germany took over from 1943

to 1944.

In 1944 Communist leader Enver

Hoxha took over the Albanian government.

Hoxha led Albania for four

decades. During this period the Communist

country was cut off from the rest

of the world. After Hoxha’s death in

1985, Albania reopened relations with

many countries.

In 1998 and 1999 fighting broke out

between Serbs and Albanians living in

Kosovo. At the time, Kosovo was a province

of Serbia that bordered Albania,

and most of its residents were ethnic

Albanians. Many of them crossed into

Albania from Kosovo. Most of the refugees

returned to Kosovo after the fighting

ended, but some stayed in Albania.

In 2008, Albanians rejoiced when

Kosovo declared independence from

Serbia.

..More to explore

Balkan Peninsula • Byzantine Empire

• Communism • Islam • Kosovo

• Ottoman Empire • Tirane

Albanian women tend to their crops.

Facts About

ALBANIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

3,194,000

Area

11,082 sq mi

(28,703 sq km)

Capital

Tirane (Tirana)

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Tirane (Tirana),

Durres, Elbasan,

Shkoder

66 Albania BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Albany

Population

(2000 census)

95,658; (2007

estimate)

94,172

Albany is the capital of the U.S. state of

New York. The city’s port on the Hudson

River has long been a major shipping

center. The port lies along a water

route that links the Great Lakes to the

Atlantic Ocean. State government also

plays a large role in Albany’s economy.

The first permanent settlement was

founded on the site in 1624. Later the

Dutch and then the English controlled

the village. The English named it

Albany in 1664. An important meeting

called the Albany Congress was held in

the city in 1754. At that meeting

Benjamin Franklin proposed a plan to

unite all the American Colonies under

one government. Albany became the

capital of New York in 1797. In the

early 1800s a railroad and the Erie

Canal were built through Albany. They

helped the city grow as a center of

transportation.

..More to explore

Albany Congress • Erie Canal

Albany Congress

The Albany Congress was a meeting

held in Albany, New York, in 1754. Representatives

of some of Great Britain’s

American Colonies met with members

of the Native American Iroquois Confederacy.

The main purpose of the meeting

was to discuss plans for the French

and IndianWar, which was just beginning.

But the meeting is now remembered

for its plan to unite the colonies.

The plan was written mostly by Benjamin

Franklin. It called for one government

for all the colonies. The leader was

The statehouse in Albany is the center of

New York State’s government.

In 1754 representatives of the American

Colonies put together a plan of union at the

Albany Congress. Benjamin Franklin published

a cartoon to show why he thought

the union was important.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Albany Congress 67

to be a president-general appointed by

the English king. The legislature was to

be appointed by the existing colonial

legislatures.

The congress passed the plan but it

never went into effect. Both the king

and the colonies thought it gave too

much power to the other side. However,

the plan served as a model when the

colonies united to form the United

States 22 years later.

#More to explore

Franklin, Benjamin • French and Indian

War

Albatross

Albatrosses are large ocean birds with

very long, narrow wings. They can fly

long distances with little effort. They

glide gracefully for hours, even in heavy

storms. However, these birds make

clumsy “crash” landings. They also

attract mates with funny-looking dances

and displays. For these reasons sailors

sometimes call them gooney birds.

There are more than 10 species, or

types, of albatross. They belong to the

family of birds called Diomedeidae.

Albatrosses are birds of the open sea.

They sleep on the surface of the water.

They have no need to visit land except

during breeding season. Most types fly

over the South Pacific, Indian, and

South Atlantic oceans. A few types fly

over the North Pacific Ocean. Albatrosses

breed and nest on islands.

Albatrosses are among the largest flying

birds. They can weigh as much as 25

pounds (11 kilograms). The wingspan of

the wandering albatross may be more

than 11 feet (3 meters)—longer than

that of any other living bird. An albatross

has a big head, a hooked bill, and

webbed toes. Most adult albatrosses have

white body feathers with black, brown,

or white wing feathers. A few types have

brown feathers all over.

Albatrosses can soar on air currents for

hours without flapping their wings. But

they have difficulty flying in calm air.

Albatrosses eat mainly squid and sometimes

fish. They also eat food scraps cast

off by passing ships.

#More to explore

Bird

The wings of a black-browed albatross can

measure more than 7 feet (2.1 meters) from

tip to tip.

68 Albatross BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Alberta

The province of Alberta in western

Canada is one of the country’s three

Prairie Provinces, but it is known for its

minerals as well as its crops. The province

was named after Princess Louise

Caroline Alberta, a daughter of Queen

Victoria, when Great Britain ruled

Canada. The capital is Edmonton.

Geography

Alberta borders British Columbia on the

west and the Northwest Territories on

the north. To the east is Saskatchewan,

another of the Prairie Provinces. To the

south is the U.S. state of Montana.

Most of Alberta’s land is a flat plain. In

the south the plain is treeless prairie, but

in the north it is forested. The province

is dotted with many lakes, especially in

the north. In the southwestern part of

Alberta are the Canadian Rocky Mountains.

The scenic Banff and Jasper

national parks lie in the

Rockies.

People

People with English, Scottish, or Irish

ancestors make up the largest ethnic

groups in Alberta. Many other residents

have German, French, or Ukrainian

origins. Though Alberta’s American

Indian population is fairly small, the

province has more Metis than any other

province. Metis have a mixed Indian and

European background.

Four of every five people in Alberta live

in cities or towns. The largest cities are

Calgary and Edmonton. Calgary is a

A mountain is reflected in Lake

Louise. The lake is part of Banff

National Park in Alberta.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Alberta 69

financial center and a shipping point for

products of the surrounding farms and

ranches. Edmonton is called the Gateway

to the North because it is farther north

than any other large Canadian city. It is a

center of the oil and gas industry. The

University of Alberta is in Edmonton.

Economy

Services, including banking, education,

and health care, make up the biggest

part of Alberta’s economy. The province’s

spectacular mountain scenery

attracts many visitors and makes tourism

a leading service industry. Alberta’s

single largest industry, however, is

energy production. The province produces

half of Canada’s oil and most of

its natural gas. Alberta also mines almost

half the coal produced in Canada.

Refined oil and chemicals made from oil

and natural gas are among the leading

manufactured products. Food and wood

products are also important.

Alberta’s leading crop is wheat. Alberta’s

farms also produce barley, alfalfa, canola,

and hay. Millions of beef cattle graze on

the grasslands of the province. Farmers

and ranchers also raise sheep, hogs, and

horses.

History

The first American Indians to live in

what is now Alberta arrived about

10,000 years ago. The first Europeans

did not arrive until 1754. They came to

trap animals for their fur and to trade

for furs with the Indians. Employees of

the two main fur-trading companies, the

Hudson’s Bay Company and the North

West Company, explored the region and

built trading posts and forts.

In 1869 the new country of Canada

purchased the Hudson’s Bay Company’s

lands, which included all of what is now

Alberta. Soon the area was opened to

settlers, and many ranchers came.

Alberta was made part of the Northwest

Territories in 1882. Settlement increased

after 1883, when the Canadian Pacific

Railway reached Calgary from the east.

Farmers moved in after new kinds of

wheat were developed that could grow

in the short northern summer. In 1905

the Canadian government made Alberta

a province.

In 1914 oil was discovered at Turner

Valley, near Calgary. In 1947 more oil

was discovered at Leduc, near Edmonton.

Energy production then became

more important than farming in

Alberta.

..More to explore

Canada • Fur Trade • Hudson’s Bay

Company • Rocky Mountains

Calgary is one of the largest cities in

Alberta. It is located in the southern part of

the province.

Facts About

ALBERTA

Flag

Population

(2006 census)

3,290,350

Area

255,541 sq mi

(661,848 sq km)

Capital

Edmonton

Motto

Fortis et Liber

(Strong and Free)

When Alberta

Became a

Province

1905

70 Alberta BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Alchemy

Hundreds of years ago people called

alchemists tried to change lead into

gold. They also tried to make potions

that would allow people to live forever.

Their field of study was called alchemy.

Alchemists experimented with metals,

salts, acids, and other chemicals. They

also developed many nonscientific and

magical beliefs about the world. For

instance, alchemists thought that the

positions of the stars in the sky could

affect their chemical experiments. Today

scientists do not recognize alchemy as a

science. However, some scientists believe

that alchemists helped to lay the

foundations for the modern science of

chemistry.

In ancient times people practiced various

forms of alchemy in China, India,

Greece, and the Middle East. In about

the 1100s people in Europe learned

about some of these ancient practices.

Some of them began their own experiments.

They tried to change lead into

gold by heating it and mixing it with

many other substances. They kept most

of their procedures secret.

Alchemists were never able to make gold

or to make people live forever. However,

they made some useful discoveries. They

figured out how to produce chemicals

called mineral acids from other chemicals.

They also learned how some chemicals

react when mixed together.

#More to explore

Chemistry • Metals

Alcott,

Louisa May

U.S. author Louisa May Alcott is best

known for her novel LittleWomen. The

book was based on her own experience

growing up in a close-knit New England

A painting shows three alchemists at work.

Louisa May Alcott

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Alcott, Louisa May 71

family. It is one of several of her stories

that are still cherished by young readers.

Alcott was born in Germantown,

Pennsylvania, on November 29, 1832.

She grew up in Boston and Concord,

Massachusetts. Louisa received most of

her schooling from her father, who was

a teacher and philosopher. She began

writing at a young age. By the 1860s

her poems and stories were being

published in The Atlantic Monthly

magazine.

Alcott published LittleWomen in 1868.

The book was instantly popular with

younger readers, and it remains a favorite

today. Alcott’s other books for young

readers include Little Men (1871) and

Jo’s Boys (1886).

Alcott spent most of the last 20 years of

her life in Boston and Concord. She

spent her time writing and caring for her

sick parents. Alcott died in Boston on

March 6, 1888.

Aleut

The Aleut are a native people of the

Aleutian Islands, which are part of

Alaska. They also live on the western

portion of the Alaska Peninsula, a piece

of land in southwestern Alaska that

extends into the Pacific Ocean. The

name Alaska comes from an Aleut word

meaning “mainland.” The Aleut are

closely related to the Eskimo (Inuit).

The Aleut’s early ancestors, the Paleo-

Aleut, arrived in the Aleutian Islands

from the Alaskan mainland about 4,000

years ago. Traditionally, the Aleut lived

off the sea. They fished and hunted animals

such as seals, sea otters, whales, sea

lions, and walruses.

The Aleut kept their traditional way of

life until Russian settlers arrived in the

1700s. Conditions were harsh under

Russian control, and many Aleuts died

from disease or warfare. At the end of

the 20th century fewer than 12,000

Aleuts lived in the United States.

#More to explore

Alaska • Eskimo

Alexander the

Great

Alexander III, king of Macedonia, is

known as Alexander the Great. In his

The Aleut call

themselves the

Unanax.

A young girl is one of the Aleut

who still live on the islands off

Alaska.

72 Aleut BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

short life he conquered almost all parts

of the world that were known to his

people.

Alexander was born in 356 BC in Pella,

the capital of Macedonia, a kingdom to

the north of Greece. The Greek philosopher

Aristotle gave him lessons. But

Alexander’s chief interest was war. In

338 BC Alexander’s father, Philip II,

brought all the Greek city-states except

Sparta under his rule. Young Alexander

commanded one part of the Macedonian

army.

In 336 BC Philip II was killed and Alexander

became king. He soon won the

loyalty of nearly all of Greece. In 334 BC

he brought together a large army and

invaded the empire controlled by Persia.

He freed the Greek settlements in Asia

Minor (now Turkey) from Persian rule

and made them his allies.

In 333 BC Alexander defeated King

Darius III of Persia, at Issus. Alexander

then marched southward along the coast

of Phoenicia (present-day Lebanon).

Late in 332 BC Alexander took Egypt

from the Persians and became pharaoh,

or king. He then controlled the whole

A painting shows Alexander the

Great dressed for battle.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Alexander the Great 73

eastern Mediterranean. Near the Nile

River he founded the city of Alexandria.

In 331 BC Alexander went back into

Asia and again defeated Darius. Then he

was called king of Asia. Soon afterward

he captured Babylon, in what is now

Iraq, and Susa, the Persian capital.

Many of Alexander’s men wanted to go

home, but instead he had them advance

further into Asia. In 327 BC Alexander

went to India. There he fought his last

great battle. He defeated the Indians and

founded two cities. At this point Alexander’s

men refused to go farther. In

324 BC Alexander returned to Susa.

The next year Alexander went to Babylon.

Weakened by his travels and battles,

he died there of a fever. His body was

eventually placed in a golden coffin in

Alexandria, Egypt. His generals divided

up his empire.

..More to explore

Alexandria • Egypt, Ancient • Greece,

Ancient • Persia

Alexander, Lloyd

U.S. children’s author Lloyd Alexander

is probably best known for his Prydain

novels. This five-book series follows a

young hero named Taran from the lowly

status of assistant pig keeper to the

throne of the kingdom of Prydain.

Lloyd Chudley Alexander was born on

January 30, 1924, in Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania. As a child, he enjoyed

fairy tales and mythology.

Alexander’s first published works were a

novel for adults and several books about

his own experiences. His first fantasy for

children was Time Cat: The Remarkable

Journeys of Jason and Gareth (1963). He

began the Prydain fantasies the following

year with The Book of Three. The

series also includes The Black Cauldron

(1965), The Castle of Llyr (1966), and

TaranWanderer (1967). The final book

of the series, The High King (1968), won

the Newbery Medal in 1969.

Alexander created the kingdom of Westmark

as the setting for another series of

novels: Westmark (1981), The Kestrel

(1982), and The Beggar Queen (1984).

Alexander’s later books include The

Illyrian Adventure (1986), and How the

Cat Swallowed Thunder (2000). He died

on May 17, 2007.

Alexandria

The city of Alexandria was founded by

Alexander the Great when he conquered

ancient Egypt in 332 BC. For hundreds

of years it was Egypt’s capital. Today it is

the country’s main seaport. It lies on the

Lloyd Alexander

One of the

cities that

Alexander

founded in

India was

Bucephala. It

was named

for Alexander’s

horse

Bucephalus.

74 Alexander, Lloyd BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

coast of the Mediterranean Sea northwest

of Cairo.

Alexandria has stone structures that date

back to when the city was part of the

Roman Empire. They include an amphitheater

and Pompey’s Pillar, which was

built in AD 297. There are also ancient

tombs called catacombs.

The chief economic activities of Alexandria

include shipping, banking, and the

manufacturing of cloth. The city

accounts for about a third of the industrial

products made in Egypt. Cotton is

the main export.

Alexander the Great, the Greek conqueror,

founded Alexandria as a naval

base and trade center. After his death in

323 BC, control of the city passed to one

of his generals, Ptolemy I Soter. Ptolemy

made Alexandria the capital of Egypt,

and it soon became the most important

city in the world. Greek scholars and

scientists went there to study in its great

library. The Pharos, a lighthouse built in

Alexandria’s harbor, was one of the

SevenWonders of theWorld.

Alexandria came under Roman rule in

30 BC and Arab rule in AD 642. The

Arabs built a new capital at Cairo and

neglected Alexandria. In 1517 Alexandria

was conquered again, this time by

the Turks. By the late 1700s it was just a

small fishing village. Alexandria revived

as a trade center in the 1800s after

canals were built to link the city to the

Nile River. Today Alexandria remains a

thriving port city.

#More to explore

Alexander the Great • Cairo • Egypt

• Egypt, Ancient • Nile River

Alfred the Great

More than 1,000 years ago a king

named Alfred saved part of England

from falling under the control of Denmark.

At the time, England was divided

into several small kingdoms, andWessex

was one of those. Alfred was king of

Wessex. Although the other kingdoms

fell to the Danes, Alfred keptWessex

free. One of England’s best-loved kings,

he is known as Alfred the Great.

Battles Against the Danes

Alfred was born in 849. He was the

youngest son of Aethelwulf, king of

Wessex. Alfred’s older brother Aethelred

Few structures remain from Alexandria’s

early history. A monument

called Pompey’s Pillar and

a sphinx were once part of a

temple of a god called Sarapis.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Alfred the Great 75

became king after Aethelwulf. When

Aethelred died in 871, Alfred became

king.

Alfred’s people were the Saxons. They

had come to Britain from Germany several

hundred years earlier, along with the

Angles and the Jutes. All were now

threatened by the Danes, who were

invaders from northern Europe. The

Danes were also called Vikings.

Several English kingdoms fell to the

Danes. In 871 and again between 876

and 878 Alfred’sWessex forces fought

against the invaders. In the end the

Danish king surrendered to Alfred.

In 886 Alfred went beyondWessex and

freed London. All the English people

who were not ruled by Danes then

accepted him as king. Alfred’s son and

grandsons eventually gained control over

all of England.

Role as a King

Alfred was not only a bold warrior. He

was also a smart organizer who knew

how to build forts, use ships, and

arrange alliances. In peace he was a wise

ruler who tried to protect the weak from

bad judges. He also gave his people better

laws.

Alfred loved learning. He read books in

Latin and hired scholars to translate

them into English. Sometimes he did

the translating himself. The Anglo-

Saxon Chronicle, a record of England’s

early history, was begun in his reign.

Alfred died in 899.

#More to explore

England • Vikings

Algae

Algae are organisms, or living things,

that are found all over the world. Algae

are very important because they make

much of Earth’s oxygen, which humans

and other animals need to breathe.

Some algae, such as seaweeds, look like

plants. However, algae are actually neither

plants nor animals. Instead they

belong to a group of living things called

protists.

There are about 27,000 different

species, or types, of algae. They are

most common in water, such as oceans,

rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, and

marshes. Some species live in soil or on

leaves, wood, and stones. Algae even

grow on animals such as turtles and

polar bears.

Alfred the Great

76 Algae BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Algae can be green, blue, red, or brown.

They vary greatly in size. Some species

are so small that they can only be seen

through a microscope. On the other

hand, the algae called kelp can reach

200 feet (60 meters) in length.

Algae differ from plants in several ways.

They do not have stems or leaves, and

their roots are different from plant roots.

Algae also do not produce flowers or

seeds, as plants do. Like plants, however,

algae make their own food through a

process called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis

also releases oxygen into the air.

In addition to making oxygen, algae are

important for other reasons.Water animals

such as whales, seals, fish, octopuses,

and starfish depend on algae for

food. People also eat some types of algae.

In many parts of the world farmers use

seaweeds as fertilizer (a material to help

crops grow).

#More to explore

Living Things • Protist • Photosynthesis

An alligator hides in algae-covered water.

A magnified view of red algae shows that it looks like a plant. But algae belong to a group

of living things called protists.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Algae 77

Algeria

Algeria is a country on the north coast of

Africa. It is the second largest country on

the continent. Its history, language, customs,

and Islamic religion make it a part

of the Arab world. The capital is Algiers.

Geography

Algeria is bordered by Tunisia, Libya,

Niger, Mali, Mauritania,Western

Sahara, and Morocco. The Mediterranean

Sea lies to the north.

The northern part of the country is

known as the Tell. Most of the people

live there. The Atlas Mountains separate

the Tell from the Sahara Desert, which

takes up about four fifths of the country.

The Sahara contains plateaus and large

areas of sand called ergs. It also features

Algeria’s highest peak, Mount Tahat,

which rises to 9,573 feet (2,918 meters).

Northern Algeria has warm, dry summers

and mild, rainy winters. The

Sahara can be very hot or quite cold,

depending on the season and time of

day. It rarely rains there.

Plants and Animals

Plants in Algeria survive without much

water. The Tell region has evergreen

shrubs and low trees. In the desert are

tufts of grass, shrubs, and acacia and

jujube trees.

Hyenas, jackals, monkeys, hawks, and

desert snakes are native to Algeria. So are

some antelope, hares, rodents, and wild

boars. Scorpions are common in the

Sahara.

People

Most Algerians have Berber or Arab

ancestors. The Berbers were the people

who lived in North Africa before the

arrival of the Arabs. Arabs now make up

more than 70 percent of the population.

Almost all Algerians are Muslim.

The Erg Admer is a large area of sand

dunes in southern Algeria.

78 Algeria BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Economy

The Algerian government controls the

economy. Algeria’s main products are

petroleum (oil) and natural gas. However,

most Algerians work in the government,

the military, or in agriculture.

Crops include wheat, potatoes, tomatoes,

barley, dates, onions, oranges,

olives, and grapes. Sheep and goats are

the main livestock. Manufacturers make

food and tobacco products; cement,

bricks, and tiles; and iron and steel

products.

History

Mainly Berbers lived in ancient Algeria.

Waves of invaders—Phoenicians,

Carthaginians, Romans, and Vandals—

conquered them at different times. Muslim

Arabs invaded in the 600s and 700s.

The Turkish Ottoman Empire gained

control of northern Algeria in 1518.

France invaded in 1830 and made Algeria

a French colony.

In the 1920s Algerians began to seek

more rights. In 1954 a group called the

National Liberation Front (FLN) began

a war against France. Algeria won independence

in 1962. The FLN controlled

the new government.

Algeria held its first elections in 1991.

One of the parties in the election was

the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS), which

wanted to establish an Islamic state.

When it appeared likely that the FIS

would win the largest number of seats,

the military canceled the elections and

took over the government. That action

sparked a devastating civil war. In 1999

Algerians elected Abdelaziz Bouteflika,

their first nonmilitary president since

1965. However, the violence continued

into the 21st century as various groups

continued to protest the actions of the

government.

..More to explore

Algiers • Arabs • France • Islam • Sahara

Algeria borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north. In ancient times the land was part of

several different empires that stretched along the sea.

Facts About

ALGERIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

34,574,000

Area

919,595 sq mi

(2,381,741 sq

km)

Capital

Algiers

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Algiers, Oran,

Constantine,

Annaba

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Algeria 79

Algiers

Population

(2004 estimate)

1,790,700

Algiers is the capital of the North African

country of Algeria. It is also Algeria’s

largest city and chief seaport. The city

lies along the Bay of Algiers.

A people called the Phoenicians created

a colony in the area in ancient times.

But the town was destroyed in the 400s.

Another group, called the Berbers,

rebuilt the town in the 900s as a center

of business. It became a prosperous city

in the 1600s under Turkish rule.

The French captured Algiers in 1830.

They made it the headquarters for

France’s colonies in North and West

Africa. During World War II

(1939–45) Algiers was the headquarters

of the Allied forces in North Africa.

Groups in Algeria began rebelling

against France in the 1950s. Much of

the fighting took place in Algiers. After

Algeria became an independent country

in 1962, Algiers grew as the country’s

capital.

#More to explore

Algeria

Algonquian

The Algonquians (or Algonkians) are a

group of Native American tribes that

traditionally spoke similar languages and

had similar ways of life. The Cree, the

Mohican, the Delaware (Lenni Lenape),

the Ojibwa, the Shawnee, and the

Algonquin are a few of the many Algonquian

tribes.

The Algonquians probably once lived in

southern Canada in the area north of

the Saint Lawrence River. Over time

they spread out, eventually occupying a

large portion of what are now the

United States and Canada. Their territory

included New England, the Atlantic

coast, the Great Lakes region, and

part of the Great Plains.

Most Algonquians built their villages

alongside rivers. They grew corn, beans,

and squash in nearby gardens. They

hunted deer, rabbits, and beaver and

sometimes larger animals such as elk,

moose, and bison (buffalo). They made

much of their clothing from animal

hides.

Most Algonquian tribes built domeshaped

houses called wigwams. Some

tribes built longhouses of wood and

The city of Algiers faces the Bay of Algiers. bark that were large enough to house

80 Algiers BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

several families. Others lived in coneshaped

tepees.

Religious practices varied among the

Algonquians. Most tribes shared a belief

in a great spirit called Manitou. They

believed that Manitou was present in all

things on Earth.

The Algonquians living along the Atlantic

coast were among the first Indians to

come in contact with settlers from

Europe. They greeted the Pilgrims and

the Jamestown settlers who arrived in

the early 1600s. Many Algonquians died

from diseases brought by the European

settlers. The settlers also gradually forced

the Indians to give up their land. By the

mid-1800s most Algonquians were living

on reservations. Thousands of

people of Algonquian heritage still live

in the United States and Canada.

#More to explore

Algonquin • Cree • Delaware • Mohican

• Native Americans • Ojibwa • Shawnee

Algonquin

The Algonquin (or Algonkin) people

traditionally lived along the Ottawa

River in what is now Canada. A version

of their tribal name is used to describe

one of the largest Native American language

groups, the Algonquians. Different

groups of Algonquin spoke different

Algonquian languages.

The Algonquin lived in scattered forest

villages. They made their houses from

wood and bark. They planted corn,

beans, and squash but got most of their

food by hunting and fishing.

The French began arriving in Algonquin

territory in the early 1600s. The Algonquin

traded animal furs to them in

exchange for European goods. This trade

made the Algonquin powerful for a

while. But the Huron soon replaced

them as the main trading partners of the

French.Warfare with the powerful Iroquois

eventually drove the Algonquin

from their homeland. Many Algonquin

joined other tribes. Some returned to

their territory once their relations with

the Iroquois had improved.

After the British defeated the French in

the French and IndianWar (1754–63),

the Algonquin became friends of the

British. However, British settlers who

moved into the Ottawa River valley took

away much of the Algonquin land. At

the end of the 20th century about 8,000

A drawing of an Algonquin village

shows homes and fields of

crops.

Many common

words that

have Native

American

roots come

from Algonquian

languages.

These

include “moccasin,”

“powwow,”

and

“tomahawk.”

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Algonquin 81

Algonquin lived in Canada, most of

them on reserves.

#More to explore

Algonquian • French and IndianWar

• Native Americans

Ali, Muhammad

U.S. boxer Muhammad Ali was a gifted

athlete with a personality that brought

him fans and fame. He was known for

such phrases as “I am the greatest!” and

“float like a butterfly, sting like a bee.”

Muhammad Ali was born on January

17, 1942, in Louisville, Kentucky. His

original name was Cassius Marcellus

Clay. At the age of 18 Clay won a gold

medal at the Olympic Games in Rome.

He became the world heavyweight

champion in 1964.

In 1964 Clay joined the Nation of Islam

and changed his name to Muhammad

Ali. At the time the United States was

fighting the VietnamWar. In 1967 Ali

refused to join the armed forces because

of his religion. He was convicted of

breaking the law. His title was taken

from him and he was not allowed to box

again until 1970. In 1971 the U.S.

Supreme Court cleared Ali of all criminal

charges.

In a match against George Foreman in

1974, Ali regained the world heavyweight

title. In 1979 Ali announced that

he would retire. He came out of retirement

for matches in 1980 and 1981,

but he was defeated both times. In later

years Ali suffered from Parkinson’s disease,

which affects the brain and the

muscles.

Allegheny

Mountains

The Allegheny Mountains, or the

Alleghenies, extend from Pennsylvania

to Virginia in the eastern United States.

They are noted for their scenic beauty.

At one time these mountains were an

obstacle to settlers who wished to move

westward.

Muhammad Ali fights Ernie Terrell

in 1967.

82 Ali, Muhammad BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Alleghenies are part of the Appalachian

Mountains. They stretch more

than 500 miles (800 kilometers) and

consist of two nearly parallel ridges.

At Mount Davis near the Maryland border,

the Alleghenies rise to 3,213 feet

(979 meters), the highest point in Pennsylvania.

The highest point inWest Virginia

is 4,863 feet (1,482 meters), at

Spruce Knob.

A large amount of coal is mined from

the Allegheny range. Heavy forest cover

makes the Alleghenies a rich source of

timber, too.

#More to explore

Appalachian Mountains

Allen, Ethan

Ethan Allen was a patriot and a soldier.

He won an important early victory in

the American Revolution. Allen led a

band of fighters called the Green Mountain

Boys against the British at Fort

Ticonderoga, in what is now New York.

Ethan Allen was born on January 21,

1738, in Litchfield, Connecticut. In

1757 he fought in the French and

IndianWar. In 1762 Allen became an

ironworker. Several years later he moved

to what is now Vermont.

Vermont was not a separate colony at the

time. NewHampshire and New York

both claimed the territory.To aid the

NewHampshire side in the dispute,

Allen organized the GreenMountain

Boys. (The name of Vermont comes from

the French words for “green mountain.”)

After the start of the American

Revolution, the group fought the British.

On May 10, 1775, the Green Mountain

Boys captured Fort Ticonderoga. Later

that year Allen was captured by the British

during an unsuccessful attack on

Montreal, Canada. He was released in

1778. The Army then made him a colonel,

but he fought no more in the war.

The Allegheny Mountains become very colorful

in the fall as the leaves on the trees

begin to change.

A picture from the 1800s shows Ethan Allen

capturing Fort Ticonderoga.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Allen, Ethan 83

Allen spent his later years trying to make

Vermont a state. New York still wanted

the territory for itself and interfered with

his efforts. After the war Allen even

talked with the British about making

Vermont part of Canada. This hurt his

reputation as an American patriot. He

died on February 12, 1789, in Burlington,

Vermont.

#More to explore

American Revolution • French and

IndianWar • Vermont

Allergy

An allergy is the human body’s negative

reaction to certain foreign substances.

Some allergies are commonplace. Many

people suffer from hay fever when pollen

is in the air. Some develop skin

rashes when they touch certain substances.

Others experience stomach

cramps after eating particular foods.

When a person reacts in these ways to

any outside substance, that individual is

said to be allergic to it.

Allergies and the Immune

System

Several things happen to cause an allergic

reaction. First, a person is exposed to

a substance such as pollen. The bodies of

most people would simply ignore pollen.

Some people’s bodies, however, treat it

as a harmful invader. When this happens,

the person’s immune system produces

substances called antibodies to

fight the pollen’s effects.

The antibodies produced in the body

tend to stay in the blood. Because of

this, the immune system remembers and

recognizes the specific substance that

attacked the body. The next time the

body comes in contact with the substance,

the antibodies react to it again.

Signs of an Allergic Reaction

The antibodies react by releasing a

chemical called histamine. Histamine

causes fluid to build up in the body and

cell tissues to swell. That is why the eyelids

of a person with hay fever become

red and puffy. Histamine also affects

muscles. This can cause breathing difficulties

or stomach cramping and pain.

One severe type of allergic reaction is

known as anaphylactic shock, or anaphylaxis.

Some people have this reaction

if they take certain drugs, eat foods such

as nuts and shellfish, or get stung by

certain insects. Anaphylaxis has very

severe symptoms and sometimes leads to

death.

Treatment

Most people quickly learn which allergies

they have. When possible, they try

Sneezing is a common sign of some allergies,

such as hay fever.

Pets are a

common cause

of allergies.

Skin cells and

saliva of cats,

in particular,

can cause

sneezing, itching,

and

watery eyes.

84 Allergy BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

to avoid contact with the substance that

causes the allergy. Unfortunately, substances

such as dust and pollen are

everywhere. Taking drugs known as antihistamines

can decrease the allergic reactions.

Antihistamines prevent histamine

from reaching the cell tissues.

#More to explore

Asthma • Immune System

Alligator

Alligators are large lizardlike animals

with long, rounded snouts and powerful

tails. They spend most of their time in

the water, but they also travel on land.

Alligators belong to the group of animals

called reptiles. They are related to

crocodiles.

Where Alligators Live

Alligators live along the edges of

swamps, lakes, and slow-moving rivers.

There are two species, or types, of alligator.

The American alligator lives in the

southeastern United States. The Chinese

alligator lives in the Yangtze River region

in China. It is very rare.

Physical Features

Male American alligators measure about

11 feet (3.4 meters) in length on average.

The females are slightly smaller.

Young American alligators are black

with yellow stripes on the tail. The

adults are brownish.

The Chinese alligator normally grows to

a length of about 5 feet (1.5 meters). It is

blackish with faint yellowish markings.

Alligators have many features in common

with crocodiles. They have thick

skin composed of many scales and

plates. They each have a long body and

four short legs. The eyes, ears, and nostrils

are located on top of the head.

These show above the water when the

animal floats.

However, there are easy ways to tell alligators

and crocodiles apart. One of the

most obvious is that alligators have

broad, rounded snouts, while most

crocodiles have narrow, pointed snouts.

Behavior

Alligators eat mainly fish, small mammals,

and birds. But they sometimes kill

American alligator prey as large as deer or cattle.

A view from above shows the different

snouts of an alligator and a crocodile.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Alligator 85

Alligators usually mate during the

spring. The female builds a nest of mud

and grass. She lays 20 to 60 white eggs

in the nest. The eggs hatch after about

65 days. The young alligators live with

their mother for as long as a year.

#More to explore

Crocodile • Reptile

Allosaurus

Allosaurus was a fierce dinosaur that

roamed Earth before the similar but

more well-known Tyrannosaurus rex

appeared. The name Allosaurus means

“other lizard.” Allosaurus is a member of

the group of dinosaurs known as theropods.

The theropods were meat-eating

dinosaurs that walked on their two back

legs.

When and Where Allosaurus

Lived

Allosaurus lived about 163 to 144 million

years ago. Most Allosaurus fossils, or

remains, have been found in North

America, in Colorado, Utah, New

Mexico, Montana, South Dakota, and

Wyoming.

Physical Features

Allosaurus reached up to 39 feet (12

meters) in length, stood about 15 feet

(4.5 meters) tall, and weighed up to 2

tons. The massive head of Allosaurus

measured about 3 feet (1 meter) long

and was supported by a short, thick

neck. The sharp teeth of Allosaurus were

curved and had sawlike edges. Allosaurus

had sharp claws on the three toes of each

hind foot. It also had long, grasping

claws on the three toes of each front foot.

The long, heavy tail of Allosaurus may

have helped the animal balance itself.

Behavior

Allosaurus was a meat-eating dinosaur

that preyed on plant-eating dinosaurs.

When it hunted alone, Allosaurus would

hide among thick plants and then jump

out on its prey. Some scientists believe

that Allosaurus also hunted in packs.

Together, a pack of Allosaurus could

bring down very large dinosaurs, such as

Apatosaurus and Diplodocus. Scientists

believe that Allosaurus reproduced by

laying eggs.

#More to explore

Dinosaur • Tyrannosaurus rex

Allosaurus

86 Allosaurus BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Alloy

An alloy is a substance made of two or

more metals or of a metal and nonmetallic

materials. To make an alloy, the

ingredients are melted and mixed

together. When the mixture cools, it

hardens.

Alloys are generally more useful than

pure metals. Pure metals may rust or

wear away easily. They may also be too

soft to hold a shape. But mixing other

substances with a pure metal often

results in a hard and strong substance.

People first learned to make alloys more

than 5,000 years ago. Ancient peoples

used a combination of copper and tin,

called bronze, to make tools and weapons.

Today such things as church bells

and statues are made of bronze. Brass, a

combination of copper and zinc, is

another ancient alloy. People today use

brass to make such things as doorknobs

and musical instruments.

Steel is one of the most important modern

alloys. Steel is a mixture of iron,

carbon, and other substances. Steel is

useful in building construction and

many other industries. Another important

modern alloy contains aluminum

and small amounts of copper or other

substances. Aircraft and other vehicles

are often made of aluminum alloys.

#More to explore

Brass • Bronze • Metals • Steel

Almond

Almonds are commonly called nuts, but

they are actually seeds. They come from

a tree that is closely related to the peach

tree. People eat almonds as a snack and

also use them in cooking and baking.

Almonds can also be pressed to obtain a

fragrant oil.

The United States, Spain, Greece, Iran,

and Turkey are major almond producers.

Most almonds produced in the United

States come from California.

There are two types of almonds: sweet

and bitter. Sweet almonds are the kind

people eat. Bitter almonds contain a

poison, but their oil can be used for

food after the poison is removed.

Almond trees do not grow much taller

than 30 feet (9 meters). They bloom in

early spring. Bitter almond blossoms are

white, and sweet almond blossoms are

pink. The fruits look like peaches, but

they are smaller and flatter. Inside each

fruit is a pit, or nut. The nut has a hard

A South American mask is made of a gold

and silver alloy. Its ears and eyes are made

of copper.

Stainless steel

is an alloy that

contains iron,

chromium,

and other metals.

Stainless

steel is useful

because it

does not rust

easily.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Almond 87

shell surrounding a seed. The seed is the

part that people eat.

As the fruit ripens, it splits open to

reveal the nut.Workers use machines to

shake the trees and make the nuts fall to

the ground. The nuts may be left to dry

on the ground, or they may be dried in

an oven.Workers then use machines to

shell, sort, and pack the nuts for shipment.

#More to explore

Nuts • Peach

Alphabet

An alphabet is a system used to represent

language in written form. Each letter

stands for a single spoken sound. Many

languages use alphabets. But some languages

use other systems to represent

words in writing. For instance, in Japanese

and Cherokee each symbol represents

a group of sounds rather than a

single sound. The Chinese writing system

uses symbols to represent the meaning

of words, not their sounds.

The Latin alphabet is the alphabet of

English and most European languages.

It has 26 letters. Other alphabets might

have fewer or more letters. Like other

alphabets, the Latin alphabet developed

from earlier forms.

EarlyWriting Systems

People in early societies drew pictures to

communicate ideas. In ancient times

people in the Middle East developed the

world’s first writing system. It used symbols

to stand for the meanings of words.

Later it also used some symbols to represent

the sounds of words.

More than 3,000 years ago people in

what is now Syria used a simpler writing

system. This system is called North

Semitic. Most modern alphabets trace

their history back to that system. North

Semitic used only 22 symbols. It did not

have any signs representing whole

words. Instead each letter represented a

consonant. There were no symbols for

vowels. People known as the Phoenicians

later slightly changed this system.

The fruits of the almond tree open to reveal

the nuts. The almond seeds are inside the

hard shells.

A computer keyboard has Latin and

Japanese letters. It sits on top of a document

written in Chinese characters.

88 Alphabet BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Greek and Latin Alphabets

The ancient Greeks changed the Phoenician

writing system to create their own

alphabet. Some people consider the

Greek alphabet to be the first true alphabet.

This is because it has symbols for

vowels and consonants. The Greek

alphabet is the ancestor of all modern

European alphabets, including Latin.

The ancient Romans, who spoke Latin,

developed the Latin alphabet. As the

Roman Empire grew, the Latin alphabet

spread throughout the empire’s vast

lands. It became the alphabet of many

other languages in addition to Latin.

The alphabet changed over time. New

letters were needed to pronounce words

in other languages. Other letters were

combined.

Other Alphabets

The North Semitic writing system also

gave rise to other ancient alphabets,

including Aramaic. The modern Hebrew

and Arabic alphabets developed from the

Aramaic alphabet. Today people in Israel

and Jews around the world use the

Hebrew alphabet. People in large parts of

theMiddle East and North Africa use

the Arabic alphabet. In Hebrew and

Arabic a small group of consonants gives

the basic meaning of a word. Vowels

slightly change the meaning.

The ancient Aramaic alphabet probably

also influenced the earliest-known writing

system of India. This system, called

Brahmi, dates back more than 2,500

years. Nearly all the modern alphabets of

India trace their history to Brahmi.

The Cyrillic alphabet was created more

than 1,000 years ago. Members of the

Eastern Orthodox church in eastern

Europe used it for religious texts. The

Cyrillic alphabet was based on the Greek

alphabet of the time. Today people in

Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria, Serbia, and

elsewhere use versions of the Cyrillic

alphabet.

#More to explore

Language •Writing

Alps, The

The Alps are the youngest, highest, and

most densely populated mountain range

in Europe. They were formed about 44

million years ago. The Alps fill most of

Switzerland and Liechtenstein and

extend into France, Germany, Austria,

Italy, and Slovenia. On the west, the

The word

alphabet was

created from a

combination

of “alpha and

beta.” These

are the Latin

names for the

first and second

letters of

the Greek

alphabet.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Alps, The 89

Alps run along the border between

France and Italy.

The highest peak in the Alps is Mont

Blanc in France, at 15,771 feet (4,807

meters). Several other high peaks are

located on or near the Swiss-Italian border.

They include the Matterhorn.

The Alps receive a great deal of snow

and rain. At high elevations, the snow

turns to ice and then flows down to the

valleys as glaciers. Sometimes masses of

snow rush uncontrolled down the

mountainsides. These events, called

avalanches, endanger Alpine

communities. The clear Alpine lakes are

noted for their beauty. Among the most

prominent are Lakes Geneva,

Constance, Como, and Zurich.

The Alps are nearly treeless near the top,

but forests grow below. The higher forests

have mostly spruce, pine, and larch

trees. Oak, beech, and chestnut trees

grow on the valley floors and lower

slopes. A few kinds of animals have

adapted well to living in the higher

mountains. These include the ibex, the

Alpine marmot, and the mountain hare.

Humans have lived in the Alps since

prehistoric times, 50,000 to 60,000

years ago. German cultures developed

in the eastern Alps, while Roman

culture influenced the west. Some areas

of the Alps were cleared of forests

during the Middle Ages (500 to 1500).

Farmers settled the land, planted crops,

and raised cattle. During the 1800s,

railroads were constructed, opening up

the area.

Many people began to travel to the Alps

during the 1900s. Air, auto, and rail

transportation to the Alps improved,

making it easier for people to get there.

Today entire villages lodge, feed, and

entertain tourists. Popular resorts

include Innsbruck, Austria; Grenoble,

France; and Saint Moritz, Switzerland.

#More to explore

Avalanche • Europe • Mountain

The Matterhorn is one of the tallest peaks in

the Alps.

90 Alps, The BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Alzheimer’s

Disease

Alzheimer’s is one of the most destructive

diseases of old age. The disease

destroys nerve cells in the brain. As a

result, the brain stops working correctly

and the memory is affected. Most

people who have Alzheimer’s disease are

more than 60 years old. Some people,

however, get it before that age.

The symptoms, or signs, of Alzheimer’s

disease begin mildly and then become

more severe over time. At first, people

with Alzheimer’s seem forgetful. Gradually,

they lose their entire memory.

People with Alzheimer’s also have a hard

time speaking and understanding other

people. They may not even recognize

close friends and family, such as their

own children. Eventually, they lose control

of body and mind.

Scientists are not sure what causes the

death of nerve cells in the brains of

people with Alzheimer’s disease. They

think the cause might be a genetic

defect. This means there might be a

problem with one of the genes that is

passed from parent to child. Because the

cause is unknown, there is no way to

prevent or cure Alzheimer’s disease.

Medications help to slow the disease in

some patients.

Amazon River

The Amazon is the mightiest river in

South America. It carries more water

than any other river. It is about 4,000

miles (6,400 kilometers) long. Only the

Nile River in Africa is longer.

The Amazon begins in the Andes

Mountains in Peru. From there it flows

north and then east through Brazil. It

empties into the Atlantic Ocean. The

Amazon drains about one third of South

America. This area includes most of

Brazil and Peru and parts of Bolivia,

Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.

Plants and Animals

The Amazon region is the site of the

world’s largest rain forest. Its plant and

animal life is remarkably rich. Almost

three fourths of all the types of plants in

the world grow there. The animals

include monkeys, anteaters, anacondas,

toucans, and huge rodents called capybaras.

The flesh-eating piranha is among

the river’s many fish.

People

Millions of Brazilians live in cities in the

Amazon region. Belem, Manaus, and

Santarem are large, growing cities.

The Amazon

River carries

about 10 times

as much water

as the Mississippi

River.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Amazon River 91

At one time almost 7 million Indians

lived in the Amazon region. Europeans

arrived in the 1500s. They took many

Indians into slavery and removed them

from Brazil.Other Indians died from

diseases carried by the Europeans. In the

1990s there were about 600,000 Indians

in the Amazon.Most live in remote areas.

Economy

The countries of the Amazon region

have encouraged businesses to use the

resources found there. Mahogany, Amazonian

cedar, and other trees are cut

down for their wood. Rubber is another

valuable plant product. Diamonds, gold,

and oil are mined.

Many people have become concerned

about the effects of economic development

in the Amazon. Scientists warn

that destroying parts of the forest threatens

the plants and animals that live there.

#More to explore

Brazil • Rain Forest

Amber

Amber is a hard, yellowish, and often

see-through substance that formed from

tree resin. Resin is a thick fluid that

oozes from pine and fir trees when their

bark is injured.

The resin that formed amber came from

trees that grew millions of years ago.

Over time these trees and their resin

became buried beneath Earth’s surface.

The trees eventually decayed and disappeared.

But the resin hardened further,

until it became amber.

Many pieces of amber contain the

remains of insects or plants in the form

of fossils. These living things were

trapped in the resin before it hardened

into amber. Scientists study these creatures

to learn how living things have

changed over millions of years.

People have found amber throughout

the world. However, most of it comes

from the shores of the Baltic Sea in

northern Europe. This amber is buried

in sands that are 40 million to 60 million

years old.

Ancient people valued amber for its

beauty. They used it to make beads and

carvings. The ancient Greeks and

Romans also believed that amber had

magical and healing properties. Artists

today turn pieces of clear amber into

jewelry and other objects.

#More to explore

Fossil • Jewelry and Gems

Millions of years ago, insects were trapped

in resin. The resin eventually hardened into

amber.

92 Amber BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ambulance

An ambulance is a vehicle used to transport

people who are sick or injured.

Most ambulances are either trucks with

space for patients or cargo vans with

raised roofs. Ambulances usually take

patients to a hospital.

Specially trained people called emergency

medical technicians, or EMTs,

ride in ambulances. They give sick or

injured people emergency medical care

before they reach the hospital.

Ambulances have many types of

equipment that are used to move and to

treat patients. Equipment for moving

patients includes stretchers and cots with

wheels. An ambulance’s medical

equipment helps to treat breathing

problems, heart attacks, broken bones,

and burns right away.

Large cities have hundreds of ambulances.

They are owned by public and

private hospitals, fire departments, and

private emergency medical services.

Some places use airplanes or helicopters

as ambulances. These air ambulances

have the same equipment as ground

ambulances. Air ambulances reach

people in out-of-the-way areas. They

also transport patients more quickly

than ground vehicles.

Most ambulance developments took

place during wartime. In the early 1800s

the French army used two-wheeled,

horse-drawn wagons to bring soldiers to

battlefield hospitals. In the 1860s public

hospitals began keeping their own horsedrawn

ambulances. The first motorized

ambulance was built in 1899. Airplanes

were used as ambulances for the first

time duringWorldWar I (1914–18).

Helicopters first served as ambulances

during the KoreanWar (1950–53).

#More to explore

Hospital • Medicine

Amendment

A change or addition to a law is called

an amendment. The word usually refers

to a change to the constitution of a government.

In the United States there have

been 27 amendments to the Constitution.

The most famous of these are the

first 10. They are known as the Bill of

Rights.

Emergency medical technicians treat a

patient in an ambulance.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Amendment 93

Passing an amendment to the U.S. Constitution

is a two-step process. The first

step is for two thirds of the members of

the Senate and two thirds of the members

of the House of Representatives to

vote for the amendment. The second

step is for the amendment to be ratified,

or approved, by the legislatures of three

quarters of the states.

Every U.S. state has its own constitution,

and almost all of them have been

amended more times than the U.S.

Constitution. The constitution of Alabama

has more than 700 amendments.

In many states voters must approve

amendments.

#More to explore

Bill of Rights • Constitution • United

States Constitution

American

CivilWar

In the 1860s the northern and southern

parts of the United States fought the

American CivilWar. The war started

after 11 Southern states separated themselves

from the United States and

formed their own government. Their

army fought the forces of the U.S. government.

The CivilWar threatened to

break up the United States. It is also

called theWar Between the States.

Buildup toWar

The North and the South had been

divided for many years over the issue of

slavery. The Southern economy was

based largely on cotton, which was

grown on large farms called plantations.

African slaves did most of the work on

the plantations. The North had small

farms that used paid workers. The

Northern economy also relied more on

manufacturing.

Neither side wanted the other’s ideas to

spread to new states being created in the

West. Northerners wanted to stop the

spread of slavery. But Southerners

believed that the U.S. government did

not have the right to decide whether or

not slavery should be allowed in a state.

They feared that the government’s next

step would be to stop slavery altogether.

Missouri Compromise

In 1819 the U.S. Congress had to decide

whether to allow Missouri to become a

state. Missouri wanted to join as a state

that would allow slavery. Some North-

The only way

to repeal, or

cancel, an

amendment to

the U.S. Constitution

is to

pass another

amendment.

Only one

amendment to

the U.S. Constitution

has

ever been

repealed.

The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution

gave women the right to vote.

94 American Civil War BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

erners in Congress were not happy with

this. Congress therefore could not agree

about what to do. Finally, Maine asked

to join the country as a free state, or a

state that would not allow slavery. Congress

then agreed to let Missouri join as

a slave state and Maine join as a free

state. This became known as the Missouri

Compromise of 1820. The Compromise

also banned slavery north of

Missouri’s southern border.

Kansas-Nebraska Act

The Missouri Compromise lasted until

Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska

Act in 1854. The act created Kansas and

Nebraska as new territories in the area

where slavery was supposed to be forbidden.

Yet the act allowed the people of

the territories to choose whether or not

to allow slavery. In Kansas the act led to

armed conflict. On one side were Southerners

who supported slavery. On the

other side were Northern abolitionists,

who wanted to end slavery.

The Confederacy and the Union

Southerners became more upset when

Abraham Lincoln was elected U.S. president

in 1860. Lincoln belonged to the

Republican Party, which opposed slavery.

Southern states decided to secede

(withdraw) from the United States to

protect their right to keep slaves. South

A map shows where the major battles of the American Civil War took place.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA American Civil War 95

Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama,

Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia,

Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee

seceded. They formed a government

called the Confederate States of

America, or the Confederacy. Jefferson

Davis was the Confederate president.

The states that stayed loyal to the

United States were called the Union.

Four states—Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland,

and Delaware—stayed in the

Union even though they allowed slavery.

They were called border states. In addition,

the western counties of Virginia

refused to join the Confederacy. They

later joined the Union as the state of

West Virginia.

Going into the war the Union had several

advantages over the Confederacy. It

had more people, more industries, and

more railroads. But the Confederacy had

better military leaders.

Events of theWar

Fighting broke out in 1861 and lasted

until 1865. By the end of 1861 two

major battlefronts had developed. One

was in the East, where Virginia, Maryland,

and Pennsylvania suffered most of

the fighting. The other front was in the

West. That front started along the Mississippi

River and then spread.

1861

The American CivilWar began on April

12, 1861, in Charleston, South Carolina.

Confederate troops captured Fort

Sumter from the Union Army. Afterward

both sides quickly raised armies.

The first major battle of the war was

fought on July 21. About 30,000 Union

troops marched toward the Confederate

capital of Richmond, Virginia. The

Confederates stopped them at a stream

named Bull Run, near the town of

Manassas. The Union troops were forced

back toWashington, D.C. The defeat

shocked the Union.

1862

Union forces had some success in the

West in 1862. In February Union troops

under General Ulysses S. Grant captured

Confederate forts in western Tennessee.

These included Fort Henry and Fort

Donelson. In April Grant led the Union

to victory in the battle of Shiloh, near

Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee. Then the

Union navy took the city of New

Orleans.

The war’s most notable battle at sea was

fought in Virginia in March 1862. It

was the first battle ever fought between

ships that were covered with iron. Nei-

There were 21

million Northerners

and

only 9 million

Southerners at

the time of the

American Civil

War. More

than one third

of the Southerners

were

slaves.

Many African Americans fought in the

Union Army. Members of the 107th U.S.

Colored Infantry pose for a photograph in

Virginia in 1865.

96 American Civil War BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ther the Confederacy’s Merrimack nor

the Union’s Monitor could win a clear

victory.

General Robert E. Lee led the Confederacy

to important victories in the East.

In August 1862 his forces won a second

battle at Bull Run. Then Lee invaded

the North. Union troops stopped the

Confederates at Antietam Creek, Maryland,

in September. But in December

Lee’s troops defeated Union troops at

Fredericksburg, Virginia.

1863

At the start of the war President Lincoln

wanted mainly to keep the United States

together. Ending slavery was not his

main goal. This changed after the battle

of Antietam. The Union victory encouraged

Lincoln to issue a statement called

the Emancipation Proclamation. The

proclamation freed all slaves in Confederate

states. As a result of the proclamation,

many blacks joined the Union

Army.

In May 1863 Lee defeated Union forces

near Chancellorsville, Virginia. Then he

again invaded the North. Lee suffered

his first big defeat in July at Gettysburg,

Pennsylvania.

The battle of Gettysburg turned the war

in favor of the Union. A day later Grant

captured the city of Vicksburg, Mississippi,

for the Union. Then the Union

controlled the entire Mississippi River.

In November 1863 Grant and General

William Tecumseh Sherman drove the

Confederates out of Chattanooga, Tennessee.

1864–65

In March 1864 Lincoln rewarded Grant

by giving him command of all the

Union armies. While Grant fought in

Virginia, Sherman went to Georgia. He

captured Atlanta in September. Then he

led his troops on a march to Savannah, a

port on the Atlantic Ocean. Along the

way they destroyed railroads and sup-

Confederate Generals Stonewall Jackson

(left) and Robert E. Lee are pictured

together in 1863. Jackson died after being

wounded in the battle of Chancellorsville in

that year.

Union Army officers are photographed in

Virginia in August 1865.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA American Civil War 97

plies. Sherman captured Savannah in

December.

By March 1865 Lee was very short of

men and supplies. On April 3 Grant

captured Richmond, the Confederate

capital. He accepted Lee’s surrender in

Appomattox, Virginia, on April 9. By

the end of May all Confederate armies

had surrendered.

Reconstruction

After the war the defeated states were

gradually allowed back into the United

States. The South rebuilt damaged property

and changed its economy so it no

longer depended on slaves. This period

was known as Reconstruction. It lasted

until the last U.S. troops left the South

in April 1877.

#More to explore

AbolitionistMovement • Confederate

States of America • Davis, Jefferson

• Emancipation Proclamation • Grant,

Ulysses S. • Kansas-Nebraska Act • Lee,

Robert E. • Lincoln, Abraham •Missouri

Compromise • Reconstruction • Slavery

American

Indians

#see Native Americans.

American

Revolution

The American Revolution was the war

in which Great Britain’s 13 American

colonies won their independence. The

colonies became a new country, the

United States. The revolution began in

1775 and ended in 1783.

Background

Before the 1760s the colonies had a lot

of freedom even though they were under

British rule. The British government was

across the Atlantic Ocean, more than

3,000 miles (5,000 kilometers) away.

The colonies had their own leaders and

learned to solve their own problems.

Plus, because Britain was often at war, it

On April 9, 1865, General Robert E. Lee

(right) surrendered to General Ulysses S.

Grant at Appomattox, Virginia.

The first shots of the American Revolution

were fired in Lexington, Massachusetts, on

April 19, 1775.

98 American Indians BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

did not always pay close attention to the

colonies.

In the 1760s, however, the British government

tried to take more control over

the colonies. One major reason for this

change was the French and IndianWar.

Britain defeated France in the war in

1763. But the war had been very costly.

Afterward, Britain decided that its

American colonies should help to pay its

debts.

Taxes

To raise money, Britain forced the colonies

to pay new taxes. In 1765 the British

lawmakers, called Parliament, passed

a law called the Stamp Act. The act put

a tax on legal papers, newspapers, and

other printed items. The colonists protested

against the tax. They were especially

angry because Parliament was

taxing them even though they had no

representatives in Parliament. Because of

the protests, the British government

ended the tax in 1766.

In 1767, however, a British official

named Charles Townshend got Parliament

to pass several new tax laws. The

Townshend Acts taxed tea, lead, paint,

paper, and glass coming into colonial

ports. These taxes made the colonists

even angrier.

Boston Massacre and the Tea

Party

To keep order, the British government

sent soldiers to Boston, Massachusetts.

On March 5, 1770, British soldiers fired

shots into a crowd of colonists. Crispus

Attucks and several other Americans

were killed. This event became known as

the Boston Massacre.

On the same day as the Boston Massacre,

Parliament did away with most of

the Townshend Acts. They kept a tax on

tea, however. Then, in 1773, Britain

passed a law that allowed a British company

to sell tea more cheaply than colonial

merchants. On December 16, 1773,

colonists boarded British ships in Boston

Harbor and threw their cargo of tea into

the water. This event became known as

the Boston Tea Party.

Intolerable Acts

The British government then passed

laws that were even harsher. The colonists

called them the Intolerable Acts.

The strongest of these acts closed the

port of Boston until the colonists paid

for the tea they had ruined. Massachusetts

was put under military rule.

The colonists realized that the colonies

had to act together. In 1774 representatives

from every colony except Georgia

met in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The

meeting was called the Continental

Congress. The representatives called on

Britain to cancel the Intolerable Acts.

The British government answered by

sending in even more troops.

Early Battles

By this time many colonists believed

that their problems with Britain could

not be worked out peacefully. They prepared

to fight. They formed groups of

soldiers called minutemen. The minute-

Patriots in different

colonies

kept in touch

with each

other through

groups called

Committees of

Correspondence.

Samuel

Adams of

Massachusetts

started the first

one in 1772.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA American Revolution 99

men were to be ready to fight “at a

minute’s warning.”

In April 1775 Britain sent a force to seize

the colonists’ military supplies in

Concord,Massachusetts. Paul Revere

andWilliam Dawes rode through the

countryside to warn the colonists that

the British soldiers were coming. On

April 19 a group of minutemen met the

British in Lexington, a town on the way

to Concord. After a short fight, the

British moved on to Concord. Another

group of American soldiers forced them

to turn back. The battles of Lexington

and Concord began the American

Revolution.

The Second Continental Congress met

in Philadelphia in May 1775. It brought

together the military forces of the colonies

to form the Continental Army. It

put GeorgeWashington in charge of the

army.Washington spent months preparing

his troops for battle.

Meanwhile the first major battle of the

war took place at Bunker Hill, near

Boston. The British captured Bunker

Hill on June 17, 1775. But they lost so

100 American Revolution BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

many soldiers that the colonists claimed

victory. The battle encouraged the

colonists.

Fighting for Independence

Before 1776, most colonists did not

want to break free from Britain. They

only wanted to get Britain to do something

about their complaints. But as the

fighting spread, more colonists became

convinced that they had to separate

from Britain. On July 4, 1776, the Continental

Congress approved the Declaration

of Independence.With this

document, the 13 colonies became the

United States of America.

The Americans struggled against the

larger and better-equipped British Army.

In the summer and autumn of 1776 the

British forced GeorgeWashington’s

troops out of New York. The Americans

were driven across New Jersey into

Pennsylvania. But thenWashington

defeated the British in Trenton and

Princeton, New Jersey. These victories

kept the struggle for independence alive.

The turning point of the war was the

battle of Saratoga, in New York. On

October 17, 1777, General Horatio

Gates led the Continental Army to a

great victory over the British. The victory

helped to bring France into the war

on the side of the new United States.

France sent ships and soldiers.

The winter of 1777–78 was a very hard

one for the Americans.Washington and

his troops camped at Valley Forge, near

Philadelphia. They suffered terribly from

hunger and illness. But they emerged in

the spring as a stronger fighting force.

They defeated the British in Monmouth,

New Jersey, on June 28, 1778.

Final Battles

In the last years of the war most of the

fighting took place in the South. In

British General John Burgoyne (center, in

red coat) surrenders in Saratoga, New

York, on October 17, 1777.

General George Washington

(right) walks through his army’s

camp at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania,

in 1778. With him is

Baron von Steuben, a German

officer who helped to train the

troops.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA American Revolution 101

1780 the British, led by General Charles

Cornwallis, won battles in South Carolina.

But in 1781 American and French

forces trapped Cornwallis in Yorktown,

Virginia. He surrendered on October

19, 1781. The fighting was over.

The peace treaty was signed on September

3, 1783, in Paris, France. It was

called the Treaty of Paris. By signing the

treaty, Britain agreed that the United

States was an independent country.

#More to explore

Adams, Samuel • Attucks, Crispus

• Boston • Continental Congress

• Declaration of Independence

• Franklin, Benjamin • George III

• Jones, John Paul • Massachusetts

• Minuteman • Paine, Thomas • Revere,

Paul • United States •Washington,

George

American Sign

Language

#see Sign Language.

Americas,

Exploration and

Settlement of the

When Christopher Columbus crossed

the Atlantic Ocean in 1492, he thought

he had reached eastern Asia. In fact he

had opened up to Europeans a new

world with two continents—North

America and South America—and many

islands. Many more Europeans followed

Columbus to the Americas. Most were

from Spain, Portugal, France, and

England.

The Americas were named not for

Columbus but for Amerigo Vespucci.

He was an Italian merchant and explorer

who took part in at least two voyages to

the Americas in the late 1400s and early

1500s. Vespucci was one of the first

people to realize that the land Columbus

found was not a part of Asia.

Exploring by Ship

Vikings

Columbus was probably not the first

European to reach America. Vikings

from northern Europe traveled to the

coast of what is now Canada in about

AD 1000. The Vikings did not stay long,

however.

According to tradition, Molly Pitcher served

bravely in the battle of Monmouth, New

Jersey, on June 28, 1778.

102 American Sign Language BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Columbus

By the time of Columbus, Europeans

had traveled to the East and explored

many parts of Asia. Many other Europeans

admired the cloths, spices, and

medicines that the explorers brought

back with them. They wanted more of

these goods. But the voyage to Asia was

long and expensive. Educated Europeans

knew that the world was round. They

thought that by sailing west, they could

find a shorter route to Asia.

Between 1492 and 1504, Christopher

Columbus made four voyages across the

Atlantic Ocean. Columbus reached

Central and South America as well as

the islands that are now called the West

Indies. He never reached Asia, but his

trips inspired many others to follow.

Magellan

Ferdinand Magellan of Portugal did

what Columbus had set out to do: he

found a western sea route to Asia. He

followed the South American coast

southward from Brazil. In 1520 he

passed around the tip of South America

into the Pacific Ocean. Magellan died,

but his crew kept sailing west. They

went past the southern tip of Africa back

to Spain. This was the first voyage

around the world.

Later Voyages

In 1497 John Cabot, an Italian working

for England, reached Newfoundland, in

what is now Canada. In 1535 Jacques

Cartier of France sailed from the Atlantic

Ocean into Canada on the Saint

Lawrence River.

In 1610 the Englishman Henry Hudson

sailed into the large bay in Canada that

is now called Hudson Bay. Hudson was

trying to find a water route through

North America to the Pacific Ocean.

People called this unknown route the

Northwest Passage. The first explorer to

find this passage was the Norwegian

Roald Amundsen—in 1906.

John Cabot landed in what is now Newfoundland

in 1497. He was one of the first

Europeans to land in North America.

Hudson Bay in Canada and the Hudson

River in the United States were named for

the explorer Henry Hudson.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Americas, Exploration and Settlement of the 103

Settling the Land

The riches of the Americas attracted

many early settlers, or colonists. Some

worked on their own, while others

worked for European trading companies.

Both groups wanted to make money

selling valuable things back to Europe.

Gold and silver were the most valuable

products of South America andMexico.

Further to the north, the furs of animals

were the most valuable products.

As Europeans began settling the land,

they met many Native Americans. Their

relations were often friendly. But Native

Americans grew angry as Europeans

took over more land.Wars between settlers

and Native Americans killed thousands.

Many more Native Americans

died from smallpox and other European

diseases.

Meanwhile, European settlers began to

grow the crops that Native Americans

grew, including corn, potatoes, pumpkins,

squash, peanuts, and tobacco.

Europeans also brought plants like sugarcane

and coffee to the Americas and

found that they grew well there. Some

Europeans set up large farms and sold

their crops back to Europe.

Some of the first European farmers captured

Native Americans and forced them

to work as slaves. African slaves eventually

replaced them. The Portuguese

brought in Africans to work as slaves

starting in 1502. The English were

active slave traders also. The slave trade

did not end until the 1800s.

Spanish Colonies

The earliest Spanish settlements were in

theWest Indies. The Spanish set up

Santo Domingo on the island of Hispaniola

in 1496. It was the first capital

of Spain’s colonial empire, called New

Spain.

In 1513 Vasco de Balboa traveled across

Central America. He became the first

European to view the Pacific Ocean

from the Americas. Six years later

Hernan Cortes made his first attack on

the Aztec Empire in Mexico. In 1533

Francisco Pizarro took Peru away from

the Inca people. The Spanish stole gold

and silver from the native empires and

shipped it back to Spain.

Spain’s colonial empire became the

biggest in the Americas. At its peak it

included the largest Caribbean islands,

all ofMexico and most of Central

America, large sections of South

The Roman

Catholic

church sent

many missionaries

into

Spanish, Portuguese,

and

French colonies.

Their task

was to convert

the Native

Americans to

Catholic

Christianity.

Francisco Pizarro conquered

what is now Peru and founded

the city of Lima there.

104 Americas, Exploration and Settlement of the BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

America, Florida, and the southwestern

quarter of what is now the United States.

English Colonies

The important English colonies were on

the Atlantic coast of North America. In

1607 merchants from the Virginia

Company founded Jamestown. This was

the first permanent English settlement

in North America.

Other English settlers soon founded

Plymouth Colony andMassachusetts

Bay Colony in New England. These

colonies were unusual. The people who

started them had reasons besides making

money. They wanted freedom to practice

their own forms of Christianity. They

could not find this freedom in Europe.

The English settled other parts of the

Americas, too. Starting in 1670, the

English traders of the Hudson’s Bay

Company set up trading posts in

Canada. In the Caribbean Sea, England

had settlements on several islands. The

largest was Jamaica, which England

seized from Spain in 1655. The English

settled Belize in Central America in

1638. Scattered settlements in South

America united to form British Guiana

in 1831.

French Colonies

France’s settlements in North America

were known as New France.Most of

these settlements were in what is now

Canada. The French explored widely,

made friends with Native Americans,

and built forts and trading posts. The fur

trade became the basis of New France’s

economy. In the late 1600s and early

1700s the French captured many trading

posts from the Hudson’s Bay Company.

In 1608 Samuel de Champlain founded

Quebec as the first permanent French

settlement. One French explorer, the

Sieur de La Salle, floated down the Mississippi

River in 1682 and claimed all

the land it drained.

France also claimed islands in the Caribbean

Sea, including what is now Haiti.

Queen Elizabeth I is pictured asking English

explorer Sir Walter Raleigh to start a colony

in Virginia for England.

Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoag Native

Americans, visits with the English settlers

called Pilgrims.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Americas, Exploration and Settlement of the 105

In the mid-1600s France founded

French Guiana on the northeastern coast

of South America.

France and England (which united with

Scotland to form Great Britain in 1707)

often fought over land in North America.

106 Americas, Exploration and Settlement of the BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

One such fight became known as the

French and IndianWar. At the end of

that war, in 1763, Great Britain won

control of French Canada. It also won all

other French territory east of the

Mississippi River. France sold its

territories farther west to the United

States in 1803.

Other Colonies

The Portuguese were among the earliest

explorers in the Americas. However, the

only colony they set up was Brazil, in

South America.

In about 1626 the Dutch built a settlement

in North America called New

Amsterdam. The English took over New

Amsterdam in 1664 and renamed it

New York. The Dutch also set up colonies

in the Caribbean. They are now

known as the Netherlands Antilles.

Russia came to North America from the

west. The Russians set up their first permanent

settlement in Alaska in 1784.

The Russians traded for furs as far south

as California. In 1867 Russia sold Alaska

to the United States.

End of Colonialism

Most colonies in North, Central, and

South America became independent

between 1776 and 1826. Many islands,

however, remained colonies.

In 1823 President James Monroe of the

United States issued a statement called

the Monroe Doctrine. It declared that

European countries were no longer welcome

to set up colonies in the Americas.

#More to explore

Balboa, Vasco Nunez de • Cabot, John

• Cartier, Jacques • Columbus,

Christopher • Cortes, Hernan • Fur

Trade • La Salle, Sieur de • Magellan,

Ferdinand • Massachusetts Bay Colony

• Native Americans • Plymouth Colony

• Slavery • Vespucci, Amerigo

In 1562 French explorer Jean Ribaut

brought colonists from France to North

America. They landed near Saint John’s

River in what is now Florida.

The first colonies

in the

Americas to

win their independence

were the 13

colonies that

became the

United States.

An illustration from 1698 depicts the last

expedition of the French explorer Sieur de

La Salle

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Americas, Exploration and Settlement of the 107

Amman

Population

(2004 estimate)

1,036,330

Amman is the capital of the Middle

Eastern country of Jordan. The city

spreads over a series of rolling hills.

Amman is Jordan’s largest city. It is also

Jordan’s main center of business,

finance, and international trade.

People have lived in the area for thousands

of years. In ancient times the city

was the capital of the Ammonites, a

people often mentioned in the Bible.

Egypt conquered the city more than

2,000 years ago. Many other powers

controlled the city over the years. But

for reasons that are still unknown,

Amman disappeared by AD 1300.

In 1878 some people fleeing Russia created

a small village in the area. Amman’s

revival began in 1921. That year it

became the capital of a territory called

Transjordan. Transjordan (now Jordan)

became an independent country in

1946. After that, Amman grew rapidly.

..More to explore

Jordan

Amoeba

An amoeba is a one-celled creature that

is among the simplest of all living organisms.

Most amoebas are so small that

they can only be seen though a microscope.

There they look like tiny blobs of

colorless jelly.

Amoebas are found in fresh and salt

water. They also live in the moist body

parts of other animals and in moist soil.

At least six types of amoeba are found in

human beings.

An amoeba has few parts. It has a thin

covering called a membrane. Inside is a

nucleus, food vacuoles, and a contractile

vacuole. The food vacuoles digest food.

The contractile vacuole gets rid of extra

water.

Amoebas move by changing their shape.

First, an amoeba extends a part of its

jellylike body outward, like a stubby

finger projecting out of a closed fist. This

projection is called a pseudopod, or false

foot. The amoeba then pours the main

Amman has many remains of

buildings from ancient times. A

theater built by the Romans

almost 2,000 years ago is just

one example.

108 Amman BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

part of its body into the pseudopod,

which makes the pseudopod grow

bigger. Eventually the pseudopod gets so

big that it becomes the whole body. New

pseudopods form as old ones disappear.

For food, amoebas depend mainly on

plants and other one-celled animals.

Amoebas use their pseudopods as

mouths. The pseudopods reach out to

surround the food and flow over it.

To reproduce, the nucleus of the amoeba

simply splits into two pieces. The two

halves pull apart, and each half takes

part of the cytoplasm. In this way, a

single amoeba becomes two.

Amphibian

Most of the animals known as amphibians

can live on land or in water.

Amphibians are vertebrates, or animals

with backbones. Amphibians were the

first vertebrates to appear on land. The

early amphibians were the ancestors of

all reptiles, birds, and mammals.

There are three basic groups of amphibians.

The first group consists of frogs

and toads. The second group consists of

salamanders, including newts and mud

puppies. The third group is made up of

wormlike creatures called caecilians.

Altogether there are more than 4,000

species, or types, of amphibian.

Where Amphibians Live

Amphibians are found nearly all over the

world. They are most common in hot,

humid areas such as the tropics. Some

adult amphibians live only on land.

Other types live only in water. However,

most amphibians spend part of the time

on land and part of the time in water.

Physical Features

Most amphibians are relatively small.

However, they vary greatly in length,

from less than 0.4 inch (1 centimeter) to

more than 60 inches (150 centimeters).

Amphibians do not have hair or feathers.

Their skin takes in oxygen. In other

words, amphibians breathe through

their skin. Most kinds also breathe

through lungs or organs called gills.

Amphibian skin takes in water, too.

Most amphibians have moist skin. In

most species, if the skin dries up, the

animal soon dies. The skin often contains

glands that make a slimy fluid

called mucus. Mucus helps protect the

skin from drying out.

Many amphibians also have glands in

the skin that make poison. This helps

protect an amphibian from other animals

that want to eat it. For example,

poison may make the amphibian taste

bad or hurt the predator’s mouth.

Some

amphibians

change their

skin color to

blend in with

their surroundings.

This

makes them

harder for

enemies to

see.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Amphibian 109

Frogs and Toads

Adult frogs and toads are tailless. Their

eyes are large and well developed. They

have short, thick bodies and four legs.

Frogs use their long, powerful back legs

for leaping and swimming. Toads have

shorter back legs than frogs do. They

walk or hop about. Unlike other

amphibians, toads have skin that is often

dry, with bumps that look like warts.

Salamanders

Salamanders have long tails. Most

salamanders have a small head, a short

body, and four legs. If a salamander

loses its tail or a leg, it can usually grow

a new one.

Caecilians

Caecilians look like worms or snakes.

They have long, slender bodies with no

arms or legs. Skin or bone covers their

eyes, so the animals are blind or nearly

blind. Most kinds live underground,

where they tunnel about.

Behavior

Amphibians are cold-blooded. This

means that their body temperature is

always about the same as the temperature

of their surroundings. If their environment

gets too hot or cold,

amphibians move to another place to

become more comfortable. For instance,

a frog may move from the shade into the

sunshine to warm its body.

During cold winters some amphibians

become very inactive for months. They

enter a resting state called hibernation.

They become active again when it gets

warmer. Some amphibians also become

inactive during hot, dry summers.

Adult amphibians eat a wide variety of

foods. Frogs, toads, and salamanders eat

mainly small boneless animals such as

Tree frogs, such as the green tree frog, have

special sticky feet that help them climb trees.

Salamanders (top) have smooth, wet skin,

like frogs’ skin. Caecilians (bottom) are

amphibians that look like worms.

110 Amphibian BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

insects, worms, and spiders. Some large

salamanders and frogs eat small birds

and mammals. Most caecilians eat

worms.

Life Cycle

Most amphibians lay eggs, but some

species give birth to live young. In most

egg-laying species, the female deposits a

large number of eggs in the water.

The life cycle of most amphibians is

divided into two phases. In the first

phase the amphibian lives in the water

in an immature form called the larva. In

frogs and toads the larva is also called a

tadpole. The larva begins life with gills,

which allow it to breathe underwater

like a fish. The larva stage may last from

several weeks to five years, depending on

the species.

In the second phase the larva develops

into the adult form. In most species, the

animal loses its gills and develops lungs.

It is then capable of living on land at

least part of the time. The animal’s body

structure may change in many other

ways, too. For example, a tadpole grows

legs and loses its tail. The change from

larva to adult is called metamorphosis.

However, some species do not have separate

larva and adult forms. They are

born in the same form as adults, only

smaller.

..More to explore

Animal • Frog • Hibernation

• Metamorphosis • Poison • Salamander

• Toad

Amsterdam

Population

(2008

estimate), urban

area,

1,482,287

Amsterdam is the largest city in The

Netherlands, a country in northwestern

Europe. It is the official capital of The

Netherlands. However, the government

offices are in the city of The Hague.

Amsterdam is a historical city as well as

the country’s major economic center. It

is also famous as a place of freedom and

tolerance. Tourists go to Amsterdam to

see its scenic canals and collections of

great art. Museums in the city display

the works of important artists from The

Netherlands, including Rembrandt and

Vincent van Gogh.

The Amstel River flows through Amsterdam.

The city also lies on a body of

A boat travels down a canal in Amsterdam.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Amsterdam 111

water called the IJ (pronounced “eye”).

A canal connects the IJ with the North

Sea. Amsterdam is a major port.

Part of Amsterdam’s land used to be

underwater, but people drained the

land. A system of pumps, barriers, and

canals keeps the water from rushing in

again. Boats travel through the city

along a cobweb pattern of canals. More

than 1,000 bridges provide land connections

over the canals.

Economy

For seven centuries Amsterdam has been

a center of international trade and transportation.

Other important industries

include banking, insurance, and tourism.

Industries that provide services to

businesses also bring money to the city.

History

Amsterdam began as a fishing village in

the 1200s. By the 1400s it was an

important port.

During the 1500s many Jews and Protestants

fled religious wars in other parts

of Europe. Many settled in Amsterdam

because it was known for its religious

freedom.

The 1600s were Amsterdam’s golden

age. The city grew wealthy as a center of

trade and banking. Amsterdam declined

somewhat in the 1700s.

Nazi troops from Germany controlled

Amsterdam in the 1940s, duringWorld

War II. The Nazis murdered most of

Amsterdam’s Jews.

After the war Amsterdam began to

thrive again. Its economy grew greatly in

the late 20th century.

#More to explore

Canal • Hague, The • Netherlands, The

• Rembrandt • Van Gogh, Vincent

Amundsen,

Roald

The Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen

was one of the most important

people in the history of polar exploration.

He traveled to both the Arctic and

the Antarctic, and he was the first person

to reach the South Pole.

Roald Engelbregt Gravning Amundsen

was born in Borge, Norway, on July 16,

1872. His father, a shipowner, died

when Roald was 14. Young Amundsen

always wanted to be a polar explorer, but

to please his mother he studied medi-

A young Jewish

girl named

Anne Frank

and her family

hid from the

Nazis in

Amsterdam for

two years. The

building

where they hid

is now a

museum.

Roald Amundsen

112 Amundsen, Roald BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

cine. When his mother died, Amundsen

left school and went to sea.

At age 25 Amundsen made his first

voyage to the Antarctic, as part of a

Belgian expedition. Then in 1903 he

set out with his own ship and crew to

explore the Arctic. By the end of this

expedition, in 1906, Amundsen had

become the first navigator to find his

way through the Northwest Passage

from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.

This had been a dream of explorers for

400 years.

In 1909 the explorers Robert Peary and

Matthew Henson became the first

people to reach the North Pole. Amundsen

then decided to try to be the first to

reach the South Pole. He set out with

four men, 52 dogs, and four sleds and

reached the pole on December 14,

1911.

In 1918 Amundsen tried to drift across

the North Pole in a boat, but the ice was

too thick. In 1926, with two companions,

Amundsen flew over the North

Pole in a dirigible, a lighter-than-air

craft. Amundsen died near the Arctic

island of Spitsbergen on June 18, 1928.

#More to explore

Henson, Matthew • Northwest Passage

• Peary, Robert E. • Polar Exploration

Anaconda

Anacondas are huge, nonpoisonous

snakes. They live in or near water in

warm parts of South America. Anacondas

are constrictors. This means that

they usually kill their prey by coiling

their body around it and squeezing until

the animal can no longer breathe. Anacondas

are one of the two largest types

of snakes in the world. Certain pythons

grow longer, but anacondas are much

heavier.

Anacondas are members of the boa family.

There are two species, or types, of

anaconda: the giant, or green, anaconda

and the yellow, or southern, anaconda.

The giant anaconda is the larger species.

It is usually brown or olive green with

oval-shaped black spots. The yellow anaconda

is tan or greenish yellow with

overlapping black spots.

The largest anacondas reach about 30

feet (9 meters) in length, but most grow

only to about 16 feet (5 meters). Some

anacondas weigh as much as 550

pounds (249 kilograms). Their thick,

bulky bodies may measure 12 inches (30

centimeters) or more around.

Anacondas usually hunt at night for

mammals, reptiles, and birds. Although

The giant anaconda is one of the largest

snakes in the world.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Anaconda 113

anacondas constrict larger prey, they

may kill turtles, birds, or other small

animals by using their mouth and sharp

teeth alone. Sometimes they may pull

their prey underwater to drown it. After

killing their prey, anacondas swallow it

whole.

Nine months after mating, female anacondas

give birth to large litters of live

young. A litter has 14 to 82 young. Each

young measures more than 2 feet (0.6

meter) long.

#More to explore

Boa Constrictor • Python • Snake

Anasazi

The Anasazi were a Native American

people whose civilization developed

beginning in about AD 100. They are

also known as the Cliff Dwellers because

of the great buildings they constructed

along the sides of cliffs. They lived in the

area where the present-day states of Arizona,

New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah

meet.

Early Anasazi houses were underground

pits lined with stone walls. In time,

these pit houses developed into kivas,

or structures where religious ceremonies

were performed. Then the Anasazi

began to live aboveground in simple,

one-story houses made from mud and

wood or stone.

Probably by about the mid-800s, the

Anasazi began constructing multistoried

structures that resembled modern apartment

buildings. The Anasazi built some

of these buildings into the sides of cliffs,

where they were difficult for their

enemies to attack.

The earliest Anasazi survived by hunting

and gathering wild plants. By about

700, however, they had learned to grow

corn, beans, squash, and other crops. As

their farming methods improved, their

food supply grew. Their population

grew, too, and they built large permanent

settlements.

No one knows why, but by about 1300

the Anasazi had mostly abandoned their

multistoried buildings. They broke into

smaller groups and moved south and

east where they built new villages.

The Anasazi’s descendants are the

Pueblo Indians. They established smaller

villages, mostly clustered in the Rio

Grande Valley of New Mexico and Arizona.

At the end of the 20th century

there were about 60,000 Pueblo Indians

living in the United States.

#More to explore

Native Americans • Pueblo Indians

Cliff Palace is an ancient Anasazi building

at Mesa Verde National Park in Colorado.

114 Anasazi BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of the structures

that make up the bodies of living

things. It is a branch of the science of

biology.

Scientists learn about body structures

mainly by dissecting, or cutting apart,

bodies. They may dissect human or animal

bodies, plants, or other life-forms

such as bacteria. Scientists identify the

structures inside the life-form and how

they are put together.

Importance of Anatomy

Scientists study anatomy to learn about

the size, shape, and position of different

body parts—for example, the skin,

muscles, bones, and organs of humans.

The study of human anatomy is

important in medicine. Medical

students learn how the parts of a

healthy human body fit together and

how they function. This helps them

treat bodies that are not functioning

properly.

Scientists also compare the anatomies of

different types of living things. They

observe the similarities and differences

of their structures. This helps them

determine how different types of living

things are related to one another and

how they developed over time.

History

An ancient Greek doctor named Herophilus

is often called the Father of

Anatomy. He performed dissections of

human bodies, sometimes in public, in

about the 300s BC. The ancient Greek

doctor Galen later wrote many books

about human anatomy. They were a

major source of anatomy information in

Europe for centuries. However, they

contained many errors. Many of his

ideas were not based on direct observations

of the human body.

The modern science of anatomy began

to develop in the 1500s. In 1543 a

doctor named Andreas Vesalius wrote

the first detailed and illustrated

anatomy textbook based on observed

facts. He performed careful dissections

of human bodies in order to study

them.

The first powerful microscopes were

developed in the late 1600s. These

instruments allow scientists to study tiny

structures in the body such as cells and

their parts. As technology has improved

Students study a model of a human body.

Anatomy models can help students understand

how the human body is made up and

how its different parts work together.

The most

famous book

about human

anatomy is

called Gray’s

Anatomy.

Henry Gray

wrote the first

edition in

1858. Other

scientists have

kept it up to

date.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Anatomy 115

over the years, scientists have been able

to learn more and more about anatomy.

#More to explore

Biology • Medicine • Microscope

Andersen,

Hans Christian

The fairy tales of Hans Christian Andersen

are popular today, just as they were

when first published in Denmark in the

mid-1800s. His stories include such

favorites as “The Ugly Duckling” and

“The Emperor’s New Clothes.”

Hans Christian Andersen was born on

April 2, 1805, in a Danish fishing village

called Odense. Andersen’s family was

very poor. As a boy, he attended school

only occasionally. He visited the theater

and found that he loved performing.

When Andersen was 11 years old, his

father died. Shortly after that, Andersen

began working in various trades.

At age 14 Andersen moved to Copenhagen,

the capital of Denmark, to try to

become an actor or dancer. But he did

not have much success. Andersen later

studied at the University of Copenhagen.

Andersen’s first collection of tales for

young people was published in 1835. It

included the story “The Princess and the

Pea.” Andersen wrote his tales as if they

were being told out loud, often using

expressions that people heard every day.

He also drew on his own experiences to

create characters who were poor or even

outcasts.During his long writing career,

he wrote more than 200 stories. Andersen

also spent much time traveling

throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa, and

he wrote several travel books.He wrote

plays, poems, and novels, too. Andersen

died on August 4, 1875, in Copenhagen.

Anderson,

Marian

The singer Marian Anderson had a pure,

rich voice and could sing a great range

of parts. An African American, she is

also remembered for breaking down

barriers between blacks and whites in

the United States.

Anderson was born on February 27,

1897, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. At

age 6 she began singing in her church

choir. At age 19 she studied singing

with a famous teacher who was so

A girl feeds the ducklings in an

illustration for the story “The

Ugly Duckling.”

116 Andersen, Hans Christian BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

impressed by her talent that he gave her

free lessons.

In 1925 Anderson gave a recital with the

New York Philharmonic Orchestra. But

because of her skin color, many opportunities

were closed to her in the United

States, where at the time blacks and

whites were often kept apart. Audiences

in other countries embraced Anderson,

however. In the 1930s she made successful

singing tours of Europe.

In 1939 Anderson was prevented from

arranging a concert inWashington, D.C.,

because blacks were not allowed in the

concert hall.Many Americans, including

First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, were

outraged. They arranged for her to sing

outside the LincolnMemorial instead,

and 75,000 people came to hear her.

In 1955 Anderson became the first African

American to perform with the

renowned Metropolitan Opera in New

York City. Two years later she published

My Lord, What a Morning, the story of

her life. Anderson died on April 8,

1993, in Portland, Oregon.

#More to explore

African Americans • Opera

Andes

The Andes Mountains of South America

are the longest mountain chain in the

world. The chain also contains the highest

mountains in the Americas. The

Andes were settled long ago by American

Indian peoples. They continue to

attract interest today because of their

mineral wealth.

Features

The AndesMountains stretch from north

to south along the entire western side of

South America. They separate a narrow

strip of land along the PacificOcean from

the rest of the continent. The Andes are

Marian Anderson sings at the Lincoln

Memorial in Washington, D.C.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Andes 117

about 5,500 miles (8,900 kilometers)

long and in most places are no wider than

200 miles (320 kilometers).

Many Andean peaks are higher than any

mountains in North America. At 22,831

feet (6,959 meters), Argentina’s Mount

Aconcagua is the highest mountain anywhere

in the world outside Asia.

Plants and Animals

Plant and animal life in the Andes varies

based on height and climate. The highest

peaks and some very dry places have

very few plants. But rainy parts of the

eastern Andes have lush tropical forests.

Animals of the Andes include pumas,

chinchillas, and several relatives of the

camel, including llamas, guanacos, and

alpacas. The Andean condor is a vulture

that is one of the world’s largest flying

birds.

People

Humans first settled in the Andes more

than 10,000 years ago. Indian peoples

such as the Inca established cities in high

valleys and built roads through mountain

passes. Most people in the Andean

region even today have at least some

Indian ancestors.

Most of the people of the mountains are

involved in farming. Most crops are

grown for use within the region, but

some are exported. Increasing numbers

of people have also become involved in

mining. The Andean region is one of the

world’s richest sources of minerals. Copper,

iron ore, tin, lead, zinc, silver, gold,

platinum, and emeralds are all produced

in the Andes, especially in the south.

#More to explore

Inca • Mountain • South America

Mount Fitzroy, or El Chalten, is part of the southern Andes Mountains. It rises above a

plain in the Patagonia region of Argentina.

118 Andes BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Andorra

The European country of Andorra is

one of the smallest in the world. The

capital is Andorra la Vella.

Geography

Andorra lies in the southern Pyrenees

Mountains between Spain and France.

The Valira River runs through its valleys.

Andorra has a number of natural

sources of hot water called thermal

springs.

The climate of Andorra is generally dry.

It has cold, snowy winters and warm

summers.

Plants and Animals

Pines and firs grow in Andorra’s mountains,

where chamois (goatlike animals)

and birds of prey also live. Andorra has

reintroduced several threatened animals,

including species of trout and deer, to

their former habitats.Wild boars and

weasels are other native animals.

People

Most Andorrans are of Spanish origin

and Roman Catholic. Catalan, a language

of eastern Spain, is the official

language. Andorrans also speak Spanish

and French. Only about one third of the

people are Andorran citizens. The rest

are mostly citizens of Spain, France, or

Portugal.

Economy

Tourism, banking, trade, and construction

are the most important parts of

Andorra’s economy. Some tourists visit

the medieval churches, castles, and

bridges. Others come for skiing and

other winter sports.

Manufacturers in Andorra make electrical

equipment, cars and car parts, newspapers,

and clothes. A few farmers raise

tobacco, hay, potatoes, and sheep.

History

The emperor Charlemagne captured

Andorra from the Muslims in AD 803. It

later passed to the Spanish bishops of

the town of Urgel. In the late 1200s

Andorra became a coprincipality, a land

governed by two princes: the bishop of

Urgel and the leader of France. In 1993

Andorrans voted for a new constitution

that gave more power to their legislature,

the General Council.

..More to explore

Andorra la Vella • Charlemagne • France

• Pyrenees • Spain

Facts About

ANDORRA

Population

(2008 estimate)

84,100

Area

179 sq mi (464

sq km)

Capital

Andorra la Vella

Form of

government

Parliamentary

coprincipality

Major urban

areas

Andorra la Vella,

Les Escaldes-

Engordany,

Encamp

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Andorra 119

Andorra la Vella

Population

(2008 estimate)

24,574

Andorra la Vella is the capital of the tiny

western European country of Andorra.

The town lies in a valley of the Pyrenees

Mountains.

Andorra la Vella is popular with tourists

because of its scenic beauty and winter

sports areas. It is also a retail shopping

center for goods from Asia and other

parts of Europe.

Andorra la Vella was long isolated from

the outside world. Roads built in the

1930s helped make it more modern. In

the second half of the 1900s the town’s

population grew along with its industries.

AngkorWat

A temple dating back to the 1100s,

AngkorWat is located in Cambodia. It

is the world’s largest religious structure.

Physical Features

AngkorWat is about 5,100 feet (1,554

meters) long and 4,498 feet (1,371

meters) wide. It is surrounded by a wall

and a moat. Of its original nine towers,

five still stand.

The temple was originally dedicated to

the Hindu god Vishnu. Carvings illustrate

Hindu legends and glorify the king

who ordered the temple built. Sculptures

portray him as Vishnu or show

him performing kingly functions. Many

Hindu images were later replaced by

Buddhist art.

History

From the 800s to the 1400s the city of

Angkor was the capital of a powerful

Cambodian kingdom called the Khmer

Empire. AngkorWat is the most famous

of the city’s temples. The Khmer started

building the temple during the reign of

King Suryavarman II, which lasted from

about 1113 to 1150. It was not finished

until after his death. In 1177 Angkor

was looted by invaders. The next king

decided that the Hindu gods had failed.

He made AngkorWat a Buddhist

shrine.

The city of Angkor was abandoned in

the 1400s. However, AngkorWat itself

was maintained by Buddhist monks as a

Andorra la Vella sits in a mountain valley.

One of the main tourist sites in the city is the

Casa de la Vall. It is where Andorra’s legislature

meets.

120 Andorra la Vella BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

pilgrimage site. Even so, parts of it were

damaged by plant roots or worn away by

water.

#More to explore

Buddhism • Cambodia • Hinduism

• Monk • Pilgrimage

Anglo-Saxon

Hundreds of years ago people known as

the Anglo-Saxons lived in and ruled

England. They were descendants of

three different peoples. The Angles and

Saxons came from different parts of

what is now Germany, and the Jutes

came from Jutland, a part of Denmark.

In the 400s the Celtic Britons who were

living in England asked the Angles, Saxons,

and Jutes to protect them from

fierce tribes in the north. In return for

their services the Angles, Saxons, and

Jutes were given land. Gradually they

became more powerful and pushed the

Britons aside. They became the rulers of

the land.

Eventually the name Anglo-Saxon came

to be used for all people living in

England, as the Angles, Saxons, and

Jutes mixed with other invaders and the

original Britons. The Anglo-Saxons

spoke an early form of English that is

now called Old English. They lived in

houses made of wood, thatch (straw),

and twigs woven together and covered

with mud or clay. When the mud or clay

hardened it made a solid roof or wall.

Anglo-Saxons fed themselves by farming.

They harvested grains, fruits, and

vegetables and raised livestock.

Anglo-Saxon rule ended in 1066. In that

year England was conquered by the

French forces ofWilliam, duke of Normandy,

during what is known as the

Norman Conquest.

#More to explore

England • Norman Conquest

Buddhist monks walk toward the main

temple building at Angkor Wat.

A rare gold coin shows an

Anglo-Saxon king.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Anglo-Saxon 121

Angola

The country of Angola lies on the southwestern

coast of Africa. After about 500

years as a colony of Portugal, Angola

suffered decades of civil war beginning

in 1975. The capital and largest city is

Luanda.

Geography

Angola is bordered by Congo, the

Democratic Republic of the Congo,

Zambia, and Namibia. The Atlantic

Ocean lies to the west. The small oilrich

area of Cabinda is separated from

the rest of Angola by a strip of the

Democratic Republic of the Congo.

A plateau, or raised land, covers the eastern

two thirds of Angola. Mountains

separate the plateau from the coast.

Lowlands lie along the coast and near

the Congo River.

Angola has a warm, tropical climate,

with a rainy season that lasts from October

to mid-May. The southwest is dry,

while the northeast is humid.

Plants and Animals

Rain forests once covered Angola, but

loggers and farmers cut down many of

the trees. Angola now has many savannas,

or grasslands with scattered trees.

Civil war and hunting have endangered

many animals, including African

elephants, black rhinoceroses, giant sable

antelopes, and Angolan giraffes. Angola

also has leopards, lions, hyenas,

elephants, hippopotamuses, zebras, and

buffalo. Many birds and a wide variety

of reptiles, including crocodiles, live

there, too.

People

Bantu peoples make up most of Angola’s

population. The two largest groups are

the Ovimbundu and the Mbundu.

Groups of San live in the southeast. Portuguese

is the official language. How-

Houses with thatched roofs line a hillside in

Angola.

122 Angola BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ever, the people speak such local Bantu

languages as Umbundu, Kimbundu, and

others. Traditional religions have largely

given way to Christianity. A majority of

the Christians are Roman Catholics.

Economy

Angola’s economy is based on its natural

resources of petroleum (oil), natural gas,

and diamonds. Agriculture, fishing, and

manufacturing play smaller roles in the

economy. Farmers raise cassava, corn,

sugarcane, sweet potatoes, bananas,

cattle, and goats. Manufacturers make

food products, beer, shoes, and fabric.

History

Ancient peoples in what is now Angola

practiced ironworking and agriculture.

Eventually Bantu peoples set up a number

of kingdoms. The most powerful of

these was the Kongo kingdom around

the Congo River. It was founded in the

1300s.

Portuguese explorers arrived in 1483.

The Kongo kingdom traded ivory, hides,

and slaves for European firearms. By the

early 1600s Portugal was exporting

5,000 to 10,000 slaves from Luanda

every year, especially to Brazil. Portugal

slowly expanded its control of Angola.

Some Angolan leaders fought the Portuguese,

but others worked with them.

Portugal continued the slave trade in

Angola until the mid-1800s.

In 1961 Angolans took up arms against

Portugal, and violent fighting lasted for

14 years. The two main independence

groups were the Popular Movement for

the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and

the National Union for the Total

Independence of Angola (UNITA).

Cuban troops and Soviet arms

supported the MPLA, while South

Africa and the United States provided

aid to UNITA.

Angola won independence in 1975. The

MPLA gained control of the government.

UNITA challenged its power,

however, and fighting broke out. A devastating

civil war lasted until the leader

of UNITA died in 2002. After that, the

MPLA had firm control of Angola. The

country slowly rebuilt from the war.

..More to explore

Africa • Luanda • Portugal • Slavery

Masks from Angola are on display at a

museum. Facts About

ANGOLA

Population

(2008 estimate)

12,531,000

Area

481,354 sq mi

(1,246,700 sq

km)

Capital

Luanda

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Luanda, Huambo,

Lobito, Benguela,

Namibe

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Angola 123

Animal

Animals are living things. Like plants,

animals need food and water to live.

Unlike plants, which make their own

food, animals feed themselves by eating

plants or other animals. Animals can

also sense what goes on around them.

Their bodies allow them to move in

reaction to their surroundings. They use

their senses and movement to find food,

mates, and safety.

Millions of different kinds of animals

live on Earth. Animals are found

throughout the world, from the freezing

polar zones to the hottest deserts. They

live on land and in the water. They

come in a huge variety of shapes and

sizes.

Scientists divide animals into two main

groups. Animals that have a backbone

are called vertebrates. Animals that do

not have a backbone are called invertebrates.

About 95 percent of all animals

are invertebrates.

Invertebrates

Some invertebrates have a soft, unprotected

body—for example, sponges,

jellyfish, and worms. Most soft-bodied

invertebrates have no legs. Many live in

water, but some worms live on land.

Other invertebrates have a covering to

protect their body. Animals called

echinoderms—for example, starfish and

sea urchins—have tough skin covered in

stiff points. These animals all live in

oceans. Many mollusks, including oysters

and snails, have a hard shell around

124 Animal BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

their soft body. Some mollusks live on

land, but many live in water.

Invertebrates with jointed legs are called

arthropods. They have a hard covering

called an exoskeleton. Insects, spiders,

crustaceans, and centipedes are all

arthropods. Arthropods live on land and

in water all over the world.

Vertebrates

Fish are the oldest known vertebrates.

They live in water and are often covered

in scales. Most fish have a bony skeleton.

However, sharks and rays have a

skeleton made of cartilage, a strong and

flexible tissue.

Animals that live part of their life on

land and part of their life in water are

called amphibians. Frogs and salamanders

are examples of amphibians.

Most young amphibians live in water

and breathe with gills. As they grow they

form lungs and legs and move onto

land.

The first vertebrates to live completely

on land were reptiles—for example, lizards,

snakes, and crocodiles. Reptiles

have dry, scaly skin. Some reptiles, such

as turtles, spend a lot of time in water,

but they breathe air.

Vertebrates that have wings and feathers

are called birds. Most, but not all, birds

can fly.

Vertebrates that feed their babies with

milk from the mother are called mammals.

Mammals include mice, deer,

seals, whales, monkeys, and humans.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Animal 125

Mammals live on land in all parts of the

world. A few types, such as whales, live

in the ocean but still must breathe air.

#More to explore

Amphibian • Bird • Fish • Insect

• Living Things • Mammal • Mollusk

• Plant • Reptile •Worm

Animal Disease

#see Disease, Animal.

AnimalMigration

#see Migration, Animal.

Animals, Extinct

When an entire species, or type, of animal

dies out, that species is extinct.

Once a species becomes extinct, it is

gone forever.

Causes of Extinction

The most common cause of extinction is

a sudden, serious change in a species’

habitat. A habitat is the surroundings in

which an animal lives. Animals can

rarely survive such sudden change. Their

food supply may be wiped out. They

may also lose shelter or other things that

they need to survive.

Many things can change a species’ habitat.

Floods, fires, droughts, volcanoes,

and other natural events may be causes.

People also change the environment in

ways that drastically affect animals.

People clear forests and drain wetlands.

They build dams that disrupt the flow of

rivers. They build cities on land that

animals need to survive. They also create

harmful pollution.

Some changes that cause extinction

affect only a small area. Others are large

enough to affect the entire world. A fire

or other local event may cause the

extinction of animals that live only in

that region. A sudden change in the

global climate might wipe out an animal

species that lives in many parts of the

world.

People can cause extinctions more

directly as well. Some species have been

hunted to extinction. The passenger

pigeon is one example. Humans killed

millions of the birds over many years.

The last one died in the early 1900s.

Mass Extinctions

Sometimes many different species

become extinct in a short time. This is

A bird called the dodo once lived on an

island in the Indian Ocean. Europeans took

control of the island in the 1500s and

began to hunt the bird. By 1681 the dodo

was extinct.

126 Animal Disease BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

called a mass extinction. Several major

mass extinctions have occurred in the

past. Each time many animal species

were wiped out. Some survived, however,

and over millions of years new species

developed.

The worst mass extinction happened

about 248 million years ago. This

extinction included mainly animals

without backbones that lived in water.

Another mass extinction occurred about

65 million years ago. It wiped out many

of the planet’s land animals, including

the dinosaurs.

Dinosaur Extinction

Dinosaurs first appeared on Earth about

215 million years ago. They were the

most important land animals for more

than 150 million years. By 65 million

years ago, however, the dinosaurs had

died out.

Many scientists believe that a large asteroid,

or rock from space, caused this mass

extinction. When the asteroid hit Earth,

the impact caused drastic changes. Thick

dust and other materials blocked the

sun. Temperatures dropped, and plants

could not grow. The dinosaurs could not

survive the cold temperatures and lack

of food. But early species of birds and

mammals did survive.

Large Mammal Extinction

About 10,000 years ago another mysterious

animal extinction occurred. This

extinction was especially dramatic in

North America, where many large mammals

disappeared. Among them were

woolly mammoths and saber-toothed

cats.

Scientists do not know what caused this

extinction. Some believe that growing

numbers of human beings hunted and

killed too many of the animals or their

prey. Another theory is that the climate

changed and affected the availability of

food.

Endangered Species Today

In the past 200 years the world has lost

many animal species. Hundreds of others

are on the verge of extinction. Animals

at risk of dying out are called

endangered species.

Governments today are working to protect

the world’s endangered species.

Laws protect some animals’ habitats

from being polluted or destroyed. Other

laws make it illegal to hunt endangered

animals. Some species respond well to

these protective measures and increase in

number. Others are not as successful.

#More to explore

Animal • Dinosaur • Endangered

Species • Mastodon and Mammoth

The Carolina

parakeet and

the passenger

pigeon were

birds once

found in the

United States.

People killed

so many of

them that both

types became

extinct in

1914.

The Tasmanian wolf is an extinct animal.

The last members of the species died out in

the 1930s.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Animals, Extinct 127

Animals,

Legendary

Stories about unusual animals were

commonplace in earlier times. Such

animals are called legendary because

they exist only in these stories, or

legends. The stories were often based on

travelers’ reports of animals that were

unfamiliar to them. Some famous

legendary animals include the dragon,

various sea serpents, the unicorn, and

the phoenix. Even today some people

speak of having seen animals such as

the yeti, Bigfoot, and the Loch Ness

monster.

The Dragon

The dragon was usually thought of as a

huge scaly lizard or snake that breathed

fire and had wings like a bat. In the

Middle Eastern world, the serpent or

dragon symbolized evil. In Christian art

the dragon came to stand for sin. In

China, however, the dragon is known as

a kind creature.

Sea Creatures

Sea serpents were supposed to be

enormous snakes, or huge creatures that

inhabited the deep sea. Sailors

throughout the ancient world reported

having seen such creatures. In

Norwegian sea folklore, the kraken was

a huge creature, part octopus and part

crab. Accounts of these creatures might

have been based on sightings of giant

squid, which can reach a length of 60

feet (18 meters).

Mermaids were also mythical sea creatures.

They were thought to have the

head and upper body of a woman and

the tail of a fish. Stories of mermaids

may have come from people who saw

water-dwelling mammals, such as the

dugong and manatee. These animals

feed their young in human fashion

A sculpture of a dragon decorates a tiled

wall in Beijing, China.

Mermaids have appeared in many stories,

including “The Little Mermaid” by Hans

Christian Andersen.

128 Animals, Legendary BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

above water and from afar may have

looked like a person.

The Unicorn

The unicorn was a mythological animal

with a single horn on its forehead. Its

body shape resembled a horse or a

young goat. The unicorn was referred to

in the ancient myths of India and

China. It appears in artwork from the

ancient civilization of Mesopotamia.

During the Middle Ages (about AD 500–

1500) artists from Europe, the Islamic

world, and China included the unicorn

in their artwork as well.

The Phoenix

Mythological creatures also have taken

the form of birds. A fabulous bird

known as the phoenix was associated

with the worship of the sun in ancient

Egypt. It was said to be as large as an

eagle, with brilliant scarlet and gold

feathers. Legend had it that only one

phoenix existed at any one time and

that it lived at least 500 years. As its

death approached, the phoenix made a

nest. It then set the nest on fire and

was consumed in the flames. A new

phoenix miraculously emerged from the

ashes.

Modern Creatures

Some people have claimed to have seen a

“monster” in Loch Ness, a lake in northern

Scotland. No one has ever proved

the monster’s existence, however.

More recent legendary creatures are the

Abominable Snowman and Bigfoot. The

Abominable Snowman, or yeti, is a

monster thought to live in the Himalayan

mountain range. Reports of the

monster are based mostly on mysterious

markings in the snow. Many people

think that the markings come from

bears. Bigfoot, or Sasquatch, has been

described as a large, hairy creature

resembling a human. It is believed by

some to exist in the northwestern

United States and western Canada.

Animation

Animation is the art and science of making

pictures, or images, appear to move.

Animated movies and television shows

are popular forms of entertainment.

There are two basic types of animation:

traditional animation and computer animation.

The mermaid

is not the only

legendary

creature with

a human head

and an animal

body. The centaur

has the

body of a

horse, and the

sphinx has the

body of a lion.

A tapestry made in the 1400s

shows a unicorn with a large

horn.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Animation 129

Traditional Animation

Movies and television shows made with

traditional animation are also called

cartoons. Teams of artists create them

one picture at a time.

Thousands of drawings are needed for

only a few minutes of animation. Each

drawing is a bit different from the one

before it. For example, to show a character

walking, the first drawing might

show the character with both feet on the

ground. The next drawing might show

the knee with a tiny bend and the foot

slightly off the ground. In the third

drawing, the knee might be bent more

and the foot might be a little farther off

the ground, and so on.

To save work and time, artists paint or

draw the moving parts of a scene on

sheets of clear plastic film. They place a

drawing of the parts of the scene that do

not move under the clear film. In this

way they do not need to redraw the

background in every picture.

Then filmmakers use a special camera to

take a picture of each drawing on its

background. Each of these pictures is

called a frame. The camera records the

frames one after another on long strips

of film. To make the images move

smoothly, 24 frames are needed for every

second of film.

Filmmakers can also create animation

with figures made of clay or other materials.

Instead of drawing thousands of

images, they take many photographs of

figures set up in a scene. They move the

figures slightly between each photograph.

This technique is called stopmotion

animation.

Computer Animation

Computers have made animation a

faster process. They can produce the

To create an animation an artist draws the

same character many times. In each drawing

the character has changed position

slightly.

Artists used computers to make

the animated movie Toy Story in

1995.

130 Animation BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

thousands of pictures needed for an animated

film more quickly than human

artists. Artists can also use computers to

create characters, objects, and backgrounds

that look more real than drawings

do. Today computers are used in

almost all animation.

Computer animation can be used to

make a whole movie or to create special

effects in live-action films. Many spacecraft,

robots, and monsters in movies are

actually computer images.

Computer animation can be used for

more than just entertainment. Scientists

use computer animation to show things

that people cannot easily see in real life.

Such things include the movement of

the solar system, weather patterns, and

the inside of the human body.

History

In the 1800s people invented spinning

machines that made a series of drawings

appear to move. The first animated films

appeared in the early 1900s. Walt Disney

made the first animated film with

sound, SteamboatWillie, in 1928. In

1937 Disney made Snow White and the

Seven Dwarfs. It was the first full-length

animated film to be released as a major

motion picture in the United States.

Animated television shows appeared in

the United States in the 1950s. Toy

Story, from 1995, was the first long film

made completely with computer animation.

..More to explore

Cartoon • Disney,Walt • Movie

• Television

Ankara

Population

(2007 census)

3,763,591

Ankara is the capital of the country of

Turkey. The city is located in the part of

Turkey that lies in southwestern Asia,

called Asia Minor. Ankara is Turkey’s

second largest city, after Istanbul.

Ankara is one of Turkey’s main industrial

centers. Its factories produce wine

and beer, processed foods, decorative

flooring, construction materials, and

tractors. Tourism and other service

industries have expanded rapidly in the

city.

People have lived in the Ankara area for

many thousands of years. In 334 BC

Alexander the Great conquered Ankara.

The city later became part of the Roman

Empire and then the Byzantine Empire.

Mustafa Kemal is buried in a mausoleum,

or tomb, in Ankara.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ankara 131

Ankara was part of the Ottoman Empire

from the 1400s to the early 1900s. In

1919 the Turkish leader Mustafa Kemal

set up a rival government in Ankara. He

wanted Turkey to become its own country.

Turkey became an independent

republic in 1923, and Ankara became its

capital.

..More to explore

Asia Minor • Istanbul • Turkey

Annapolis

Population

(2000 census)

35,838; (2007

estimate)

36,603

Annapolis is the capital of the state of

Maryland. The city lies along the Severn

River at its mouth on Chesapeake Bay.

Annapolis has a port on the bay, which

leads to the Atlantic Ocean.

Many people in Annapolis work for the

state government. The United States

Naval Academy in Annapolis trains

officers for the Navy and Marine Corps.

The city’s leading industries are crab and

oyster fishing, seafood processing, and

boatbuilding.

The city was founded in 1649. It was

originally called Providence. The city

became the capital of Maryland in 1694.

The following year the city was renamed

Annapolis.

In the 1700s Annapolis was an important

center of social and political life in

the American Colonies. It served as the

capital of the United States from 1783

to 1784. Many historic buildings from

the 1700s can still be seen in Annapolis

today.

Saint Mary’s Church was built between 1858 and 1860. It is located on Spa Creek in

Annapolis’ historic district.

132 Annapolis BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ant

Ants are social insects. This means that

they live together in organized communities

called colonies. There are more

than 10,000 different species, or kinds,

of ant. Ants are found almost everywhere

in the world, but they are most

common in hot areas.

Ants range in size from 0.08 inch to 1

inch (2 to 25 millimeters). They are

usually yellow, brown, red, or black. The

body of an ant is divided into three sections:

the head, the thorax (midsection),

and the abdomen. The head is large, and

the abdomen is slender and oval. The

thorax is connected to the abdomen by a

small waist. Two antennas are located on

the top of the head. Ants use their

antennas for guidance, smell, and communication.

Most types of ant live in nests that they

make from many different materials,

including soil, sand, wood, and leaves.

Some ants build anthills.Within each

nest there is usually a queen, workers,

and soldiers. The queen spends her life

laying eggs. The workers are females

who do the work of the nest—for

example, collecting food, cleaning the

nest, and caring for eggs. Soldiers are

larger females who defend the colony.

They also raid other colonies and often

capture slaves.

At certain times of the year, many species

produce winged males and queens.

The males’ only purpose is to mate with

the queens. The males and the queens

fly into the air to mate. The males die

soon afterward. Each queen then lays

her eggs and sets up a new nest. It takes

several weeks for the eggs to develop

into adults. Most ants live for 6 to 10

weeks, though some live up to 15 years.

#More to explore

Insect

Harvester ants work to store grass, seeds,

and berries in their nest.

Carpenter ants like wood of all kinds. They

make their nests in live or dead trees or in

wooden structures such as telephone poles

and porches.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ant 133

Antananarivo

Population

(2001 estimate)

1,403,449

Antananarivo is the capital of Madagascar,

an island country off the southeastern

coast of Africa. Antananarivo stands

on a high hill in the country’s central

highlands. It is the largest city in Madagascar

by far.

Antananarivo’s historic sites include

royal palaces from the 1800s. The city

also has Anglican and Roman Catholic

cathedrals and the National Library. The

University of Madagascar was opened in

the city in 1961.

Antananarivo has been a government

center for hundreds of years. Many of

the city’s residents work for the government

of Madagascar. Banking and business

services are also important to the

economy. The city’s factories process

tobacco and make foods, leather, and

clothing.

Antananarivo began as a fortress town

in the 1600s. It became the capital of

the Merina kingdom in the 1700s. In

1895 French troops took control of the

town. Within 10 years the French

controlled most of the island. They

made the town the capital of their

colony. In 1960 the colony became an

independent country with its capital at

Antananarivo. The city grew quickly in

the late 20th century.

#More to explore

Madagascar

The sun sets on the hilly city of Antananarivo.

134 Antananarivo BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Antarctica

The southernmost continent in the

world, Antarctica surrounds the South

Pole. Its name means “opposite to the

Arctic” (the Arctic is the region around

the North Pole). Antarctica is larger than

both Europe and Australia. But it has no

permanent human population.

Land

An ice sheet covers nearly all of Antarctica.

It contains 90 percent of the

world’s ice and 70 percent of the world’s

freshwater. At its thickest point the ice

sheet is 15,670 feet (4,776 meters) deep.

Around the coast, glaciers continually

break off icebergs into the sea.

The continent has two unequal parts.

The larger is generally known as East

Antarctica, while the smaller is West

Antarctica.West Antarctica includes the

Antarctic Peninsula, an 800-mile

(1,300-kilometer) extension of the continent

that juts northward toward the

southern tip of South America. The

Transantarctic Mountains separate East

andWest Antarctica. Mountains with

only their peaks showing through the

ice, known as nunataks, are found in

some areas. Antarctica has several active

volcanoes.

About 2 percent of Antarctica is ice-free.

These unusual land areas, called oases,

are mostly found near the coast. They

include the dry valleys of southern Victoria

Land and the Bunger Oasis in

Wilkes Land.

Penguins are among the few animals that can survive the very cold temperatures of

Antarctica.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Antarctica 135

136 Antarctica BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Antarctica does not have 24-hour periods

divided into days and nights. At the

South Pole the sun rises on about September

21 and moves in a circular path

until it sets on about March 22. This

“day,” or summer, is six months long.

From March 22 until September 21 the

South Pole is dark, and Antarctica has its

“night,” or winter.

Antarctica is the coldest continent. The

average annual temperature in the

interior is .70� F (.57� C). But the

coast is warmer. Along the Antarctic

Peninsula temperatures can rise up to

59� F (15� C).

Plants and Animals

The extreme cold has kept the

continent almost empty of life. Some

mosses and liverworts grow in ice-free

areas along the coast, and two types of

flowering plants grow on the peninsula.

Native land animals are limited to

certain kinds of arthropods, or

insectlike animals.

About 45 kinds of birds live in Antarctica.

The emperor and the Adelie penguins

are found in large numbers around

the entire coastline. Gentoo and chinstrap

penguins occupy the Antarctic

Peninsula coasts and some islands. Several

kinds of seals and whales inhabit the

waters around Antarctica. Fishes limited

to the Antarctic include the Antarctic

cod and the icefish.

History

The first recorded landing on Antarctica

was on Cape Adare in 1895. The first

people to spend a winter on the continent

did so in a ship that was caught in

ice at Cape Adare during the period

from March 1898 to March 1899.

Englishmen Robert F. Scott and Ernest

Henry Shackleton led three expeditions

to the Antarctic between 1901 and

1913. They pioneered routes into the

interior of the continent, and the

research they conducted provided a base

for present-day scientific programs. On

December 14, 1911, Roald Amundsen

of Norway became the first person to

reach the South Pole. Many other expeditions

followed.

Every year hundreds of researchers travel

to Antarctica to conduct experiments.

Widespread scientific investigation of

Antarctica began during the International

Geophysical Year in 1957–58. In

1959, 12 countries signed the Antarctic

Treaty to reserve the continent for

peaceful, scientific purposes. By 2000,

44 countries had signed the treaty.

#More to explore

Amundsen, Roald • Continent • Glacier

• Iceberg • Penguin • Polar Exploration

Facts About

ANTARCTICA

Area

5,400,000 sq mi (14,200,000 sq km)

Population

No permanent population

Coldest Recorded Temperature

July 21, 1983, Vostock Station: .129� F

(.89� C)

Hottest Recorded Temperature

January 5, 1974, Lake Vanda: 59� F (15� C)

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Antarctica 137

Anteater

Anteaters are curious-looking animals.

Their long heads and snouts look like

tubes, and they have no teeth at all. Anteaters

use their strong front legs and

heavy claws to break open nests of ants

and termites. When the insects rush out,

the anteaters eat them with their long,

sticky tongues.

Anteaters live in the swamps and forests

of Central and South America. They are

related to sloths and armadillos, which

also live in Latin America.

True Anteaters

There are four species, or types, of anteater.

They make up a scientific group

called Vermilingua, which means

“worm-tongue.”

The largest species is the giant anteater.

From the tip of its snout to the end of

its tail, the giant anteater is about 6 feet

(1.8 meters) long. Its coat is mostly gray,

and its long tail is bushy. It feeds on the

ground by day and by night.

There are two different species of lesser

anteater, or tamandua, but they look

very similar. Lesser anteaters are only

about half the length of giant anteaters.

They also have shorter muzzles. Lesser

anteaters have tan, black, or tan-andblack

coats. They live in trees and feed at

night. They use their long, nearly hairless

tails to climb on tree branches.

The silky, or two-toed, anteater is the

smallest of the group. It is the size of a

squirrel. It has a silky, yellowish coat and

a long, furry tail. Like lesser anteaters,

the silky anteater lives in trees and feeds

at night.

Other Animals Called

Anteaters

People sometimes call other insecteating

animals anteaters, but these animals

are not related to true anteaters.

They include the numbat (or banded

anteater), the aardvark (or ant bear), the

echidna (or spiny anteater), and the

pangolin (or scaly anteater).

#More to explore

Armadillo • Sloth

Antelope

Antelopes are a group of plant-eating

mammals that belong to the same family

as sheep, goats, and cattle. The impala,

the addax, gazelles, gnus, and kudus are

all antelopes. The pronghorn, or prongbuck,

is also known as an antelope, but

it belongs to a different family.

Antelopes live on the large, grassy plains

of Africa and in the central and southwestern

regions of Eurasia (the continents

of Europe and Asia). Only the

pronghorn is found in North America.

The giant

anteater’s

tongue can be

as long as 24

inches (60

centimeters).

giant anteater

138 Anteater BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Antelopes are generally about the same

size as most goats and deer. They have

hooves on their feet. Their coats are generally

golden, reddish tan, or gray. The

face, belly, and rump tend to be white.

Most male antelopes have horns that

curve backward.

Antelopes have excellent senses of smell

and hearing. These help them to detect

danger and leap to safety. The impala

can make leaps as long as 30 feet (9

meters). Antelopes can also run very

fast. One type of gazelle can run 50

miles (80 kilometers) per hour.

Antelopes generally travel in herds of

several hundred animals. During the

mating season, male antelopes mark

their territory by rubbing their scent

glands against plants and trees. A male

will fight other male antelopes to defend

his territory. The male then attracts a

female, or doe, and they mate. The doe

gives birth to one young about four to

eight months later, depending on the

type of antelope.

#More to explore

Hoof • Horn • Mammal

Anthem,

National

#see National Anthem.

Anthony,

Susan B.

In the 1900s women in the United

States fought to gain equal rights with

men. One of the leaders of that movement

was Susan B. Anthony.

There are many different kinds of antelope. They include the blackbuck, which is found in

India; the saiga from elsewhere in Asia; and the gerenuk, Thomson’s gazelle, common

eland, impala, and suni from Africa. In most of these animals only the males have horns.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Anthony, Susan B. 139

Susan Brownell Anthony was born on

February 15, 1820, in Adams,

Massachusetts. When she was 6 years

old her family moved to Battenville,

New York. As a young woman she

taught school.

In the 1850s Anthony became involved

in both the temperance movement,

which fought alcohol abuse, and the

abolitionist movement, which sought to

end slavery. She traveled widely, spoke at

public meetings, and began to take an

interest in women’s issues.

At the time, women in the United States

did not have the right to vote. To fight

this injustice, Anthony and her friend

Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed the

NationalWoman Suffrage Association

(NWSA) in 1869. “Suffrage” means the

right to vote.

To draw attention to the struggle,

Anthony tried to vote in the 1872 presidential

election. She was arrested, but

she refused to pay her fine. In 1890 the

NWSA merged with another group to

form the National AmericanWoman

Suffrage Association. Anthony was president

from 1892 to 1900.

Susan B. Anthony died on March 13,

1906, in Rochester, New York. In 1920

the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution

gave voting rights to women in

all states.

#More to explore

Abolitionist Movement • Stanton,

Elizabeth Cady •Women’s Rights

Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of human

beings and their cultures, from

prehistoric times to today. The people

who practice anthropology are called

Susan B. Anthony

Some anthropologists study how certain

groups of people live. They may travel to

remote places, such as the Ituri Forest in

central Africa, to observe these groups.

140 Anthropology BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

anthropologists. Anthropologists often

compare different human communities.

They try to determine their similarities

and differences. By doing this,

anthropologists hope to increase their

knowledge about humanity as a whole,

as well as about specific groups of

people.

Anthropology has two main divisions:

physical and cultural. Physical anthropologists

study the physical features of

humans. Cultural anthropologists examine

human cultures. Both these kinds of

anthropology may include the study of

prehistoric, ancient, and modern

humans.

Physical Anthropology

Physical anthropology is related to the

science called biology. Physical anthropologists

examine differences in human

physical features. They often study

human genes. These are the things that

pass along traits from parents to their

children. They may also measure the

shape, size, and structure of body parts

or properties such as blood types.

Some physical anthropologists compare

the physical features among people from

different geographic areas. Others may

examine what makes humans physically

different from other animals, such as

apes. Some physical anthropologists

study the remains of prehistoric humans

to learn about human origins. They try

to determine how and when modern

humans developed from early forms of

humans and from nonhuman ancestors.

In other words, they study human evolution.

In the past, some physical

anthropologists divided people into

races. They ranked the races based on

such features as skull size and skin

color. They thought that some races

were better than others. However, that

idea came from prejudices, not from

true science. In the late 20th century

anthropologists found that modern

humans are all very similar in their

genes. In fact, there is no scientific basis

for dividing people into races.

Cultural Anthropology

Cultural anthropology is a social science,

or a field of study concerned with

human societies. Cultural anthropologists

study many aspects of human cultures,

in different places and times.

These may include art, language, religion,

clothing, customs, and social

structure. Anthropologists try not to

judge a culture’s practices as good or

bad. Instead, they try to find out what

the practices mean to the people of that

culture. They also compare the practices

of various societies.

Some anthropologists study the bones and

other remains of humans.

Margaret

Mead of the

United States

was a famous

anthropologist.

She studied

the

peoples of

Oceania during

the mid-

1900s.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Anthropology 141

Archaeology is one type of cultural

anthropology. Archaeologists uncover

and study pottery, tools, and other

objects left by prehistoric and ancient

peoples. They try to learn how such

peoples lived.

In the 1800s and early 1900s most cultural

anthropologists were from western

Europe or the United States. They usually

traveled to another part of the

world, such as Africa or Asia, to study

different cultures. Today cultural anthropologists

from all around the world

study a wide variety of human groups.

For instance, they may study small fishing

villages, gangs in big cities, religious

groups, or large companies.

#More to explore

Archaeology • Biology • Culture

• Evolution • Genetics • Human Origins

• Social Science

Antibiotic

Doctors sometimes treat patients with a

type of medicine called an antibiotic.

Antibiotics treat illnesses and infections

caused by bacteria, or tiny organisms.

Antibiotics can come in the form of a

pill, a liquid, a cream, or a shot. One of

the first widely used antibiotics was

penicillin. It was discovered in 1928.

Doctors use antibiotics to cure serious

diseases such as pneumonia, tuberculosis,

and meningitis. Antibiotics can also

fight common problems such as acne

and strep throat. Antibiotics do not

work against common colds or other

illnesses caused by a virus.

Antibiotics work by killing bacteria or

by preventing them from multiplying.

Sometimes, however, not all the bacteria

die. The bacteria that survive are said to

have a resistance to the antibiotic. As

those bacteria multiply, they pass on the

resistance to new bacteria. The next time

those bacteria are exposed to the same

antibiotic, even fewer of them die. Eventually

the antibiotic does not kill enough

of the bacteria to make the illness go

away.

When enough types of bacteria become

resistant to an antibiotic, doctors no

longer use that antibiotic as medicine.

The number of resistant bacteria continues

to grow. Scientists are working to

find new antibiotics to replace the old

ones.

#More to explore

Bacteria • Disease, Human • Penicillin

• Virus

A special test shows whether or not antibiotics

can stop the growth of certain bacteria.

Tablets that contain antibiotics are placed

on a surface with bacteria on it. The clear

areas around the tablets show that the antibiotics

have stopped the bacteria from growing.

Antibiotics

should always

be used carefully.

Some

people have

bad reactions

to certain antibiotics.

142 Antibiotic BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Antigua and Barbuda

The Caribbean island country of Antigua

and Barbuda is known for its powdery

beaches. The capital is Saint John’s.

Geography

The country consists of three islands:

Antigua, Barbuda, and Redonda. Antigua

has rolling hills and volcanic rocks.

Near the coast are coral reefs. Barbuda is

a flat island 25 miles (40 kilometers)

north of Antigua. No one lives on

Redonda, a large rock southwest of

Antigua.

The country has a warm, tropical climate.

Droughts often occur on Antigua.

Plants and Animals

Barbuda has rain forests and lush vegetation.

With its drier climate, Antigua has

no forests but many kinds of cactus.

Barbuda is home to many large seabirds

called frigate birds.

People

Most of the country’s people are descendants

of African slaves. Small populations

of whites, Asians, and American

Indians also live there. Most people are

Christian. The official language is

English.

Economy

Tourism is very important to Antigua

and Barbuda’s economy. Transportation,

communications, financial services, real

estate, and construction are also important.

There is little manufacturing,

mainly of beer and T-shirts. Agriculture

and fishing play a small role in the

economy. The main crops are tropical

fruits.

History

The first inhabitants of Antigua and

Barbuda were the Ciboney people and,

later, the Arawak people. The explorer

Christopher Columbus landed on Antigua

in 1493.

The English took over the islands in

1632. They brought in Africans to work

as slaves on large sugar plantations. The

slaves won freedom in 1834.

The islands were part of the British Leeward

Islands colony until 1956. Great

Britain then managed their foreign

affairs until 1981, when Antigua and

Barbuda gained independence.

..More to explore

Arawak • Caribbean Sea • Columbus,

Christopher • Coral

Facts About

ANTIGUA AND

BARBUDA

Population

(2008 estimate)

87,500

Area

171 sq mi (442

sq km)

Capital

Saint John’s

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major city

Saint John’s

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Antigua and Barbuda 143

Apache

The people known as the Apache

include several related Native American

groups. The Apache are familiar to many

people because of the WildWest stories

about Cochise and Geronimo. Both

men were famous Apache warriors who

fought to keep Apache lands free from

Mexico and the United States.

Historians believe that the ancestors of

the Apache lived in Canada. The Apache

probably migrated to the American

Southwest in about AD 1000. The traditional

Apache homelands are located in

what are now Arizona, Colorado, New

Mexico, Texas, and the Mexican states of

Chihuahua and Sonora.

The Apache were nomads who moved

from camp to camp depending on the

season and the food supply. They got

their food by hunting, gathering wild

plants, and farming. They also carried

out raids on other people to obtain

horses and supplies. The Apache made

dome-shaped shelters, known as wickiups,

by covering a wooden frame with

grass or branches.

Spanish explorers were the first non-

Indians to enter Apache lands. Mexicans

and Americans came later. American

settlement in Apache territory led to

fierce fighting between the Apache and

the U.S. military in the second half of

the 1800s. The last of the Apache wars

ended with Geronimo’s surrender in

1886. Some of the Apache settled in

Oklahoma; others moved to a reservation

in New Mexico. At the end of the

20th century there were about 57,000

Apache. Many lived on reservations in

the Southwest.

#More to explore

Geronimo • Native Americans

Apartheid

Apartheid was a system for keeping

white people and nonwhites separated in

South Africa. It lasted from about 1950

to the early 1990s. The word apartheid

means “apartness” in Afrikaans, a language

spoken in South Africa.

The population of the country is mostly

nonwhite. But for many years the white

people of South Africa controlled the

country’s government. They established

laws that kept the races separate and

discriminated against the nonwhite

majority.

Apartheid divided South Africans into

four groups: white, Bantu (black), Col-

An Apache woman holds a child in a

cradleboard. Many Native American

women used cradleboards to carry small

children on their back.

144 Apache BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ored (of mixed descent), and Asian. The

policy created separate areas in cities for

each group. Members of a group were

not allowed to live, operate businesses,

or own land outside of their area. Under

“pass” laws, nonwhites had to carry

passes while in white areas. Other laws

set up separate schools and restricted

each race to different types of jobs. The

government also created 10 territories

called “homelands” and forced all blacks

to move to them.

With the support of some whites, many

blacks in South Africa protested against

apartheid. The African National Congress

(ANC) led the fight. The protests

sometimes turned violent. A district

called Soweto rioted in 1976 against a

requirement that blacks learn Afrikaans.

Other countries also condemned apartheid.

In 1985 Great Britain and the

United States restricted trade with South

Africa.

In response to the protests, the South

African government granted nonwhites

some rights in the late 1980s. In

1990–91 the government led by President

F.W. de Klerk ended most of the

apartheid laws. In 1994 all races were

allowed to vote in a national election.

Nelson Mandela, leader of the ANC,

was elected president. Apartheid was

over, but its effects remained. Racial

discrimination continued in South

Africa.

#More to explore

African National Congress

• Discrimination • Mandela, Nelson

• South Africa

Apatosaurus

A massive dinosaur, the Apatosaurus

weighed as much as five elephants. The

name Apatosaurus means “deceptive lizard.”

It used to be called Brontosaurus,

which means “thunder lizard.” Apatosaurus

belongs to the group of dinosaurs

known as sauropods, which also includes

Brachiosaurus. The sauropods were large,

plant-eating dinosaurs with a long neck,

a massive body, and four pillarlike legs.

When and Where Apatosaurus

Lived

Apatosaurus lived about 147 to 137 million

years ago. Most Apatosaurus remains

have been found in North America,

Scientists once

thought that

Apatosaurus

needed to live

in water to

support the

weight of its

heavy body.

Modern scientists

now

agree that the

dinosaur was

mainly a land

animal.

During the period of apartheid

blacks and whites were kept

apart in many ways. A sign from

that time says that a beach is for

whites only.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Apatosaurus 145

particularly inWyoming, Utah, Oklahoma,

and Colorado.

Physical Features

Apatosaurus was one of the largest land

animals of all time. It reached a length

of 70 feet (21 meters), weighed 30 to 36

tons, and stood 15 feet (4.6 meters) tall

at the hips. This dinosaur also had a very

long neck and tail. Apatosaurus stood

and walked on all four legs. It had claws

on its large feet. Its head was small and

horselike, with long, peg-shaped teeth.

Behavior

Apatosaurus fed on the leaves and

needles of trees and plants. Its long neck

may have let it reach trees as high as 35

feet (10.6 meters). It swallowed small

stones to help grind up the plants in its

stomach. Apatosaurus probably lived and

traveled in herds. Like other dinosaurs,

it reproduced by laying eggs.

#More to explore

Brachiosaurus • Dinosaur

Ape

Apes are the animals that are most

closely related to humans. Both apes and

humans are members of the scientific

group of animals called primates. Monkeys

are primates, too. However, apes

differ from monkeys in several ways. For

instance, apes have more complex brains

than monkeys do. Also, monkeys have

tails but apes do not.

The apes are divided into two categories:

great apes and lesser apes. Gorillas, orangutans,

chimpanzees, and bonobos are

great apes. They are larger and more

intelligent than the lesser apes. The gibbons

are lesser apes.

Where Apes Live

Apes live in warm or hot rain forests.

Gibbons and orangutans are found in

southeastern Asia. Gorillas and chimpanzees

are found in western and central

Africa. Bonobos have the smallest range.

They are found only in part of the

Apatosaurus

146 Ape BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Democratic Republic of the Congo, a

country in central Africa.

Gibbons and orangutans live mainly in

trees. On the other hand, gorillas spend

most of their time on the ground.

Chimpanzees and bonobos tend to eat

and sleep in trees, but they travel mostly

on the ground.

Physical Features

The smallest apes are the gibbons. Most

gibbons are about 16 to 26 inches (40 to

65 centimeters) long. Gorillas are the

largest apes. They may grow to about 66

inches (170 centimeters) in length and

weigh 300 to 600 pounds (135 to 275

kilograms).

All apes have a coat of hair, which is

usually tan, brown, black, gray, or reddish.

They have long arms and shorter

legs. Gorillas, orangutans, and chimpanzees

generally have powerful arms and

broad chests. Bonobos and gibbons are

more slender. Like humans, all apes have

thumbs that can bend to meet the other

fingers.

Behavior

Most apes are active during the day.

They usually sleep in trees at night. All

Apes include orangutans, gorillas, bonobos, and gibbons. They vary in size, but some of

them can be as big as an adult human.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ape 147

apes except gibbons build nests for

sleeping.

Most apes live in groups. Chimpanzees

and bonobos are the most social, sometimes

living in groups of more than 100

animals. However, male adult orangutans

live mostly alone.

Apes eat mainly plants, including fruits,

leaves, stalks, and seeds. Sometimes they

eat insects or other small animals.

Chimpanzees also hunt and kill monkeys

and other mammals for food.

Great apes are very intelligent. Some

chimpanzees and orangutans in the wild

use sticks or other objects as tools. For

instance, some chimpanzees poke sticks

into ant or termite nests. The chimps

pull the sticks out and eat the insects

clinging to them. Scientists study the

learning abilities of apes in laboratories

and zoos. They have taught some great

apes to communicate using sign language

or pictures of symbols. However,

not all scientists agree that these apes

have truly learned to use language.

Reproduction

Reproduction in apes is similar to reproduction

in humans. A female ape usually

gives birth after a pregnancy of seven to

nine months. Normally a single baby is

born. Twins are rare. Baby apes are

nearly helpless for the first few months

after birth. Adult apes may provide care

for the young for several years.

Under Threat

Most types of ape are endangered, or at

risk of dying out completely in the wild.

Humans have cut down the trees in forests

where some apes live, destroying

their habitats. People also kill apes for

their meat. However, people have also

begun trying to save these animals.

Some countries have national parks to

protect apes and their habitats. Laws

also make it illegal to hunt or capture

endangered apes.

#More to explore

Chimpanzee • Gibbon • Gorilla

• Orangutan • Primate

Aphrodite

In ancient Greek mythology Aphrodite

was the goddess of love and beauty. She

was one of the 12 chief gods believed to

live on Mount Olympus. Aphrodite is

associated with the Roman goddess

Venus because they shared many of the

same characteristics. The symbols of

Aphrodite are the dove, rose, myrtle

tree, and swan.

In one story Aphrodite was the daughter

of Zeus, the ruler of all the gods. Her

mother was a Titan named Dione.

Some apes spend part of their time in trees

and part on the ground. Orangutans, like

gibbons, spend most of their time in trees.

148 Aphrodite BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Titans were giants who once ruled the

world. Other stories tell that Aphrodite

sprang fully grown from the foam of the

sea. The wind carried her on a shell to

the island of Cyprus, which became her

home. Sailors prayed to her to calm the

wind and waves.

According to legend, gods and humans

alike desired Aphrodite because of her

beauty. But she was proud and rejected

her admirers. To punish her, Zeus had

her marry the ugly god of fire, named

Hephaestus. Aphrodite soon left him

for Ares, the handsome god of war.

One of their children was Eros, the

winged god of love. Zeus later arranged

for Aphrodite to fall in love with a

handsome shepherd named Anchises.

From that union Aeneas was born. He

was said to be an ancestor of the

Roman people.

#More to explore

Ares • Greece, Ancient • Hephaestus

• Mythology • Zeus

Apia

Apia is the capital of Samoa, an island

country in the southern Pacific Ocean.

It lies on the northern coast of Upolu

Island. Apia is Samoa’s main port. It

ships dried coconut meat, bananas,

cocoa, and coffee to other countries.

Manufacturing and tourism also bring

money to the city.

Apia developed into a port after European

missionaries and traders arrived in

the mid-1800s. In the 1940s, during

WorldWar II, U.S. Marines used Apia

as a base.

The former home of Scottish writer

Robert Louis Stevenson sits on a hill

overlooking Apia. Today Samoa’s head

of state lives there.

#More to explore

Samoa

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Apia 149

Apollo

In ancient Greek mythology Apollo was

the god of music, healing, light, and

prophecy (predicting the future). He

was one of the 12 main gods believed to

live on Mount Olympus. He also came

to be considered a sun god. Because of

Apollo’s many important roles, the

Greeks loved him greatly. The Romans

later worshipped him too. The laurel

tree, dolphin, and crow were sacred to

Apollo.

Apollo was the son of Zeus, the chief

god, and Leto. Leto was a Titan, or one

of the giants that once ruled the world.

Apollo was also the twin brother of

Artemis, the goddess of hunting.

According to tradition, one of Apollo’s

earliest deeds was to slay a giant snake,

called Python. No human dared

approach the monster. Apollo came

down from Mount Olympus and, after a

hard fight, killed Python using his silver

bow and golden arrows.

The famous Temple of Apollo stood at a

site called Delphi. This was near the

place where Apollo had killed Python.

People traveled great distances to visit

the shrine. There they would speak to

one of Apollo’s priestesses. She would

give them an oracle, or prediction of the

future, said to come from Apollo.

According to legend, the god Hermes

gave Apollo a lyre (a kind of stringed

instrument). Apollo loved the gift and

became skilled at playing it.With his

music, Apollo charmed the other gods at

feasts on Mount Olympus.

#More to explore

Artemis • Greece, Ancient • Hermes

• Mythology • Zeus

150 Apollo BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Appalachian

Mountains

The Appalachian Mountains of eastern

North America are lower but much

older than the Rocky Mountains in the

West. For early settlers who wanted to

move from the territory of the original

13 American Colonies to the west, the

Appalachians were a natural barrier.

The Appalachians extend almost 2,000

miles (3,200 kilometers), from the

Canadian province of Newfoundland

and Labrador in the north to the U.S.

state of Alabama in the south. The

mountains are more than 250 million

years old and have been worn down over

the years.

Because they extend so far north and

south, the Appalachians have a wide

range of temperatures. In Canada and in

the White Mountains of New Hampshire,

Arctic conditions often prevail,

especially at high elevations. The south

has milder weather, but heavy clouds

and haze are common.

Before settlers arrived from Europe, the

Appalachian area from Maine to Georgia

was completely covered by forests.

The forested area is now smaller but still

impressive. Hawks, wild turkeys, and

many kinds of songbirds make the

Appalachians their home. The region

also has black bears, white-tailed deer,

wild boars, raccoons, and beavers.

Before the arrival of Europeans, the

northern part of the Appalachians was

occupied by Native Americans of various

EasternWoodland groups. In the southern

mountains, the Cherokee were the

main inhabitants. By the middle of the

1800s, most of the Native Americans

had been removed from the area. In the

south, they were replaced by settlers who

lived in isolated communities. Separated

from the outside world by the hills,

Screw Auger Falls are in a section

of the northern Appalachian

Mountains in Maine.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Appalachian Mountains 151

these people made their own distinctive

culture and music.

Eastern Appalachia has rich farmland.

Cotton is grown in the south, while

tobacco and fruit are the main crops

farther north. The Appalachian area is

also known for its minerals. Coal is the

most important mineral. It is mined in

large quantities in the Appalachian Plateau,

from Pennsylvania to Alabama.

Tourism is also a major industry. The

Appalachians offer splendid scenery and

many opportunities for outdoor activities.

The Appalachian National Scenic

Trail is a hiking path that winds through

14 states on its way from Mount Katahdin,

in Maine, to Springer Mountain in

Georgia.

#More to explore

Mountain • Rocky Mountains

Appendix

The appendix is a part of the human

digestive system. It is a finger-sized tube

attached to the large intestine. The

appendix does not seem to help with

digestion. However, if it becomes

blocked or infected, it can cause an illness

called appendicitis.

Human beings are one of the few animals

that have an appendix. The human

appendix is usually 3 to 4 inches (8 to

10 centimeters) long. It is less than half

an inch (1.3 centimeters) wide. It

extends outward from the first section of

the large intestine, in the right side of

the lower belly.

Appendicitis usually occurs in people

younger than 35 years of age. The illness

happens when something (such as digestive

waste) blocks the opening of the

appendix. The appendix then swells and

becomes infected. If swelling continues,

the appendix may burst.

An attack of appendicitis usually starts

with a dull pain in the belly.Within

hours the pain may worsen. The pain

may move downward, to the right side

of the lower belly. Nausea and vomiting

are also common.

Doctors treat appendicitis by removing

the appendix. The surgery to remove an

appendix is called an appendectomy.

#More to explore

Digestive System • Intestines

Apple

Apples are one of the world’s most

widely grown fruits. People have eaten

them since ancient times. There are

thousands of varieties of apple. They

grow on trees that belong to the same

scientific family as roses.

The highest

peak in the

Appalachian

Mountains is

Mount Mitchell

in North Carolina.

It reaches

a height of

6,684 feet

(2,037

meters).

152 Appendix BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Where Apples Grow

People grow apples in North America,

Europe, and Asia. The leading producers

of apples include China, the United

States, Poland, Iran, Turkey, and France.

Apple trees grow best in areas where the

summers are mild and the winters are

somewhat cold.

Physical Features and Growth

Apple trees are small to medium in size.

In the spring they grow white flowers.

The fleshy fruits are usually ready to be

picked in autumn. Apples are red, yellow,

or greenish and fairly round. They

are about 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters)

wide.

A new apple tree can grow from an apple

seed.However, it will not grow the same

variety of apple as the tree that made the

seed. Because of this, people normally

grow apple trees using another method.

They cut a twig or bud from the apple

tree to be reproduced. They attach this

twig or bud to a rootstock, or a young

apple tree grown for its strong roots. The

parts from the two trees soon grow

together into one tree. This new tree will

produce the same variety of apple as the

one from which the twig or bud came.

Uses

Apples contain fruit sugars, fiber, and

the vitamins A and C. Some varieties are

good for eating raw. Other types are best

cooked. In the United States apple pie is

a traditional dessert. In Europe people

often serve fried apples with sausage or

pork. Farmers grow some varieties of

apple for their juice. People drink the

juice fresh or make it into a drink called

cider.

#More to explore

Fruit • Tree

Apricot

Apricots are orange or reddish fruits

with smooth skin. The trees on which

they grow belong to the rose family.

Apricots are related to plums and

peaches.

Apricots originally grew only in China.

They were carried to other parts of the

Apples vary in size, color, and texture.

Apricots are golden ripe and ready to pick

in June and July, earlier than most other fruits.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Apricot 153

world, and today they grow in all of

central and southeastern Asia. They are

also found in parts of southern Europe,

North Africa, and North America. Turkey

is the world’s largest producer of

apricots. California produces almost all

the apricots in the United States.

Apricots are round or oval in shape.

They are usually less than 3 inches (8

centimeters) wide. Most apricots have

orange or yellow flesh. Some kinds have

nearly white flesh. Apricots have a large,

flat, smooth seed in the center. The seed

is also called a pit, or stone.

Apricots grow on large, spreading trees

with bright green, oval leaves. Apricot

trees produce small white or pink flowers

in spring. The fruits grow from these

flowers. The fruit develops slowly at

first. After the pit forms, the fruit grows

more quickly. Apricots are ready to pick

in early summer.

Fresh apricots taste sweet and mild.

Most apricots are dried, canned, or

made into jam. They are a good source

of vitamin A and iron.

#More to explore

Fruit • Peach • Plum

Aquarium

An aquarium can be a small container

for a few goldfish. It can also be a building

that displays a large collection of

water animals. Aquariums give people

the chance to observe an ecosystem very

different from their own.

Types of Aquariums

People who like fish often keep aquariums

as a hobby. Popular fish for home

aquariums include goldfish, guppies,

zebra danios, and bettas. Home aquariums

can be as small as a bowl or as large

as an entire wall. For their fish to sur-

Orca whales swim past visitors to a public aquarium.

154 Aquarium BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

vive, owners must make sure that their

aquariums stay clean and that the water

is at the right temperature. They also

must provide the right type and amount

of food.

Public aquariums are buildings with

large tanks of fish and other water animals.

Different tanks contain fish, animals,

and plants from cold, warm, fresh,

and salty waters. People come to see and

learn about fish and their habitats. Public

aquariums often care for sick or

injured water animals, too. Marine

biologists help the animals to get well

and then return them to the wild.

History

People have kept fish in artificial habitats

for at least 4,500 years. The ancient

Egyptians and Romans kept fish in

aquariums. The Chinese bred goldfish in

ponds and bowls. Artificial ponds filled

with fish later became popular in European

gardens. The trend spread to North

America in the 1800s. In 1853 the Zoological

Society of London, England,

opened the first public aquarium. Public

aquariums soon opened in many other

major cities.

#More to explore

Ecology • Fish • Goldfish

Aqueduct

An aqueduct is a system for carrying

water. Aqueducts can supply water to

cities or to farms for irrigation. The

water is carried from a lake, river, or

reservoir through a conduit, or channel.

The channel may be an underground

Early aqueducts had to rely on the force of gravity to move water over long distances. This

meant that the water could only move from a high point to a lower point. Modern aqueducts

use electric pumps to move the water along.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Aqueduct 155

tunnel or pipe, a canal at ground level,

or a bridge.

People built aqueducts in ancient

Greece, Babylonia, Persia (now Iran),

and India. Many of these aqueducts

were tunnels dug into hillsides. Early

aqueducts depended on gravity to create

the flow of water. The water source had

to be higher than the destination so the

water could flow downhill all the way

there. Variations in the height of the

land, such as mountains and valleys,

caused problems.

To move water across valleys people

sometimes built aqueducts in the form

of arched bridges with two or three layers

of arches on top of each other. The

water flowed through a channel in the

top of the uppermost layer. The ancient

Assyrians used 2 million stone blocks to

build an aqueduct to carry water across a

valley to their capital, Nineveh.

Ancient Rome had a complex system of

11 aqueducts built from 312 BC to AD

226. The system used both bridges and

underground pipes. Some of the aqueducts

are still used today. The Romans

also built aqueducts in other parts of

their empire.

Most engineers today use powerful

pumps to force water upward when necessary.

This allows modern engineers to

design aqueducts in ways that ancient

engineers could not. Instead of building

a bridge over a valley, for example, modern

engineers can simply run pipes

down one side of the valley and up the

other. Pumps powered by steam were

first used in the late 1700s. Later pumps

were powered by electricity.

#More to explore

Bridge • Canal • Rome, Ancient

Arabian

Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula, or Arabia, is a

piece of land in southwestern Asia. It is

the original homeland of the Arab

people. It is also the birthplace of the

religion of Islam. The country of Saudi

Arabia takes up about four fifths of the

peninsula. The peninsula also includes

Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, the United Arab

Emirates, Yemen, Bahrain, and parts of

Jordan and Iraq.

Geography

The Arabian Desert covers almost all of

the peninsula. Some parts of the desert

get enough rain for grass and shrubs to

grow. In general, however, the climate is

very dry and hot. At least one third of

the desert is sandy. Other parts are cov-

The Inca

people of

South America

built a system

of aqueducts

to carry water

down from the

Andes Mountains.

One

Inca aqueduct

was 360 miles

(579 kilometers)

long.

156 Arabian Peninsula BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ered by bare rock. There are some hills

and mountains.

The Arabian Peninsula has almost half

of the world’s supplies of petroleum

(oil). Most of the oil is in or near the

Persian Gulf, the body of water east of

the peninsula. The countries of the

region sell the oil to other countries.

People

Arabs make up most of the population

of the peninsula. Nearly all Arabs speak

the Arabic language. Most Arabs are

Muslims, or followers of Islam. Muhammad,

the founder of Islam, was born in

what is now Saudi Arabia.

History

In ancient times the Sabaeans, the

Minaeans, and the Himyarites built up

powerful kingdoms in southwestern

Arabia. These Arab peoples traded with

Egypt, China, and India.

In the 600s Muhammad started Islam.

Soon all of Arabia was united under the

religion. Then the Arabs spread Islam

beyond the peninsula by conquering

other lands. The Muslim leaders who

followed Muhammad ruled a large

Islamic empire. At first they ruled from

Arabia. Later, however, they ruled from

other parts of the empire.

In the 1500s the Ottoman Turks made

Arabia part of their empire. However,

they never gained firm control of the

peninsula. The Arabs revolted

repeatedly against the Ottomans. The

Sa!ud family controlled the middle part

of Arabia.

Meanwhile, the British took control of

most of the southern and eastern coasts

of Arabia. The local Arabian rulers

united with the British against the Ottomans.

They defeated the Ottomans in

the early 1900s. Then the peninsula

gradually became free from British rule.

By 1971 the peninsula was made up

entirely of independent countries. In

1990 the countries of North Yemen and

South Yemen were united to form the

Republic of Yemen.

#More to explore

Arabs • Islam • Petroleum • Saudi

Arabia

Arab-IsraeliWars

Since the creation of Israel in 1948, the

Jewish state has gone to war with its

Arab neighbors on several occasions.

The differences between the groups continued

into the 21st century.

The Arabian Desert features large areas of

mountains and raised flat areas called

plateaus.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arab-Israeli Wars 157

Background

The Middle Eastern region known as

Palestine was the ancient home of the

Jewish people. It became part of the

Islamic world in the AD 600s. From

1923 to 1948 the British ruled the

region. During this time, many Jewish

immigrants from Europe settled there.

Arabs also lived in Palestine, and both

groups wanted to control the land.

When Britain gave up Palestine, the

United Nations (UN) divided the land.

Each group got the same amount, but

the Arabs were unhappy because the

Jews were given some land that was

owned by Arab Palestinians.

The War of 1948–49

On May 14, 1948, as soon as Israel

came into existence, Arab Palestinians

and neighboring Arab countries declared

war on Israel. Arab forces occupied parts

of Palestine, but by the time the war

ended Israel ended up with more land

than it had before the war.

In 1949 Israel and the Arab states signed

border agreements. There was no peace

treaty, however. The many Palestinians

who had left their homes ended up in

refugee camps in Arab countries.

The Six-DayWar

In the spring of 1967, fighting between

Syria and Israel led to the Six-DayWar.

Israel saw that Egypt was preparing for

war in order to aid Syria. On June 5

Israel struck quickly and wiped out

nearly the whole Egyptian air force on

the ground. In six days’ time Israel

seized the Old City of Jerusalem, the

Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the Jordanian

territory west of the Jordan River

(known as the West Bank), and the

Golan Heights, on the Israeli-Syrian

border.

The Yom KippurWar

On October 6, 1973, on the Jewish holy

day of Yom Kippur, Egypt and Syria

both attacked Israel. In the Yom Kippur

A map shows the territories that Israel

and its neighbors fought over during the

Arab-Israeli wars. At the end of the Yom

Kippur War in 1974 Israel controlled the

area marked in orange.

158 Arab-Israeli Wars BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

War, Israel pushed both armies back into

their own territory but in turn suffered

heavy losses. After fighting ceased early

in 1974, the UN established neutral

zones between those countries and

Israel.

Ongoing Tensions

On March 26, 1979, Israel and Egypt

signed a peace treaty. Tensions continued,

however, between Israel and other

Arab communities. The Palestine Liberation

Organization (PLO) attacked

Israel from camps in Lebanon in 1982.

On June 5, 1982, Israel invaded the

country. The PLO eventually left, but

some Israeli troops remained in the

country until 2000.

In the late 1970s Israelis began to build

settlements on the land that it occupied

on the Gaza Strip andWest Bank. In

1987 the growth of these settlements

caused Palestinians to protest. Demonstrations

and riots—known as the intifada

(uprising)—broke out and

continued until the early 1990s. In 1993

Israel agreed to start turning over control

of some of the occupied territories

to the Palestinians. In 2000, however, a

new intifada erupted. It stalled peace

talks between Israel and the Palestinians.

#More to explore

Arabs • Egypt • Israel • Jerusalem

• Middle East • Palestine • Palestine

Liberation Organization • Syria

Arabs

An Arab is someone whose native language

is Arabic. The term was first used

to describe people who lived in a part of

southwestern Asia called the Arabian

Peninsula. Today the word Arab also

refers to Arabic-speaking people who

live in the Middle East, North Africa,

and other places. In the early 21st century

there were more than 100 million

Arabs throughout the world.

Early Arabian society was made up of

families that came together to form

tribes. Tribes traced their heritage back

many centuries. According to tradition,

some Arabs are descended from a man

named Qahtan, who lived in southern

Arabia. Others are descended from a

man named !Adnan, of northern Arabia.

The religion of Islam brought Arabs

together beginning in the early AD

600s. Because Islam’s holy book (the

Koran) is written in Arabic, that

language soon was used by all who

practiced the religion.

Arabs shop at a street market in

Cairo, Egypt.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arabs 159

More than 90 percent of modern Arabs

practice Islam. Religion is an important

part of everyday life for many Arabs. It

influences how people behave and dress.

Arabs, especially women, tend to dress

modestly. In many areas women are

expected to wear dark robes and to cover

their face with a veil in public.

Arabs who live in cities tend to have less

traditional attitudes than those who live

in small villages. Both men and women

have more educational and employment

opportunities in cities.

#More to explore

Arabian Peninsula • Islam

Aral Sea

The Aral Sea is a saltwater body in central

Asia. The sea’s name comes from the

Kyrgyz word Aral-denghiz, meaning “Sea

of Islands,” because of the many islands

in its waters.

Also called Lake Aral, the Aral Sea is

situated more than 250 miles (400 kilometers)

east of the Caspian Sea. It is

bordered by Kazakhstan on the north

and Uzbekistan on the south. The Amu

Darya and Syr Darya rivers are the sea’s

two main sources of inflowing water.

The Aral Sea area has cold winters and

hot summers. The area gets very little

rainfall.

In 1960 the Aral Sea covered an area of

26,300 square miles (68,000 square

kilometers). However, during the

second half of the 1900s, most of the

inflowing river water was used for

irrigation before it reached the sea. The

sea also loses water through

evaporation. Because there is not much

rainfall this water is not replaced fast

enough to maintain the water level.

The Aral has therefore shrunk

drastically in its area and volume. By

the end of the 1900s the Aral Sea had

lost so much water that the exposed

land divided the sea into three separate

parts.

Scientists view the changes to the Aral

Sea as a serious threat to the local

environment and human health. As the

water has evaporated, the salt and

mineral content has risen dramatically.

This has made the water unfit for

drinking and killed the once-abundant

supplies of freshwater fish. The fishing

industry along the Aral Sea was

virtually destroyed. Many groups tried

to address these issues, but the

problems continued into the 21st

century.

#More to explore

Kazakhstan • Uzbekistan

160 Aral Sea BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Arapaho

The Arapaho are Native Americans who

originally lived in the Great Lakes

region. They gradually moved westward

and became great buffalo hunters and

warriors of the western Great Plains.

The Arapaho traditionally were farmers,

but as they moved west they began

hunting instead. Bison (buffalo) meat

became their main source of food. They

used bison hides to make clothing and

covers for their tepees.

The Arapaho were very religious people.

They believed that sacred objects had

supernatural power. Their most sacred

object was the Flat Pipe, a tobacco pipe

with a very long stem. They used this

pipe only during special religious

ceremonies.

By the mid-1800s the Arapaho had

separated into two groups. The Southern

Arapaho lived in what is now Colorado,

and the Northern Arapaho lived in

what is nowWyoming.

The Arapaho were pressured by the U.S.

government to move to a reservation. In

1869 the Southern Arapaho moved to

land in Indian Territory, which is now

part of Oklahoma. In 1878 the Northern

Arapaho moved to the Shoshone

Reservation (now called theWind River

Reservation) in what is nowWyoming.

Later in the 1800s both Arapaho groups

lost much of their reservation lands to

white settlers. At the end of the 20th

century more than 6,000 Arapaho lived

in the United States.

#More to explore

Native Americans

Arawak

The Arawak Indians once lived in South

America and on islands in the Caribbean

An Arapaho man wears the traditional

clothing of his people.

The Arawak people were forced to leave

the islands of the Lesser Antilles long ago.

They left behind stone carvings and pottery.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arawak 161

Sea. The island Arawak, or Taino, were

the Indians the explorer Christopher

Columbus met on his first journey to

the Americas.

The Arawak lived in large villages. They

built their houses from logs, poles, and

the leaves of palm trees. They got most

of their food by farming. They also

fished, caught shellfish, and hunted

birds, lizards, and other small animals.

The Arawak first lived in northern

South America. Then they spread to the

Caribbean islands. Shortly before Europeans

arrived, the warlike Carib people

pushed the Arawak off the islands called

the Lesser Antilles. Columbus met the

Arawak in 1492. At that time the

Arawak lived only on the Greater Antilles

(Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and

Puerto Rico).

Columbus’ men and the Spaniards who

followed them treated the Arawak

harshly. They forced the Arawak to

work in fields and in mines. Some

Arawak died of starvation. Many others

died of diseases brought by the

Europeans.

By 1550 the island Arawak population

had been reduced from 1 million or

more to almost nothing. Their traditional

way of life largely disappeared as

well. Small groups of Arawak managed

to survive. Their descendants now live in

Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Florida.

#More to explore

Carib • Columbus, Christopher

Arbor Day

A day set aside for the planting of trees,

Arbor Day began in Nebraska in 1872.

Today people across the United States

celebrate Arbor Day.

How Arbor Day Is Celebrated

Many states observe Arbor Day on the

last Friday in April, though the date may

vary depending on the climate. On

Arbor Day people plant trees throughout

their neighborhood. They plant trees

as memorials to loved ones, to restore

damaged landscapes, or just to add natural

beauty to the surroundings.

History

J. SterlingMorton, a newspaper editor

and politician, founded ArborDay. In

1854 he moved fromMichigan to

Nebraska, which was then a territory. The

NebraskaTerritory was a land of rolling

plains with few trees.Morton missed the

trees he had known in the East.

After Nebraska became a state, Morton

asked the state to create a holiday for

The largest

Arawak villages

had as

many as

3,000 people

living in them.

Girl Scouts plant a tree on Arbor Day.

162 Arbor Day BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tree planting. Nebraskans celebrated the

first Arbor Day in 1872. Arbor Day

became a legal state holiday in 1885.

The holiday later spread across the

United States as well as to other

countries.

Archaeology

Archaeology is the study of things that

people made, used, and left behind. The

goal of archaeology is to understand

what people of the past were like and

how they lived. Scientists who study

archaeology are called archaeologists.

An archaeologist’s works begins with

finding a site to study. Some sites, such

as ancient cities, are visible on the surface.

Other sites are buried. Special

devices can be used to sense structures

that are underground or underwater.

After finding a site, an archaeologist digs

slowly and carefully. This work is called

excavation, or a “dig.” Archaeologists use

spoons, knives, picks, brushes, and other

tools in their work. They try to uncover

buildings, tools, weapons, art, and anything

else that people made. These items

are called artifacts.

Then archaeologists study the objects.

They want to know when an artifact was

made, what it was made from, and what

it was used for. Archaeologists have several

methods for figuring out an artifact’s

age. One method is called

carbon-14 dating. Carbon-14 is a

chemical found in all organisms, or living

things. After an organism dies, the

amount of carbon-14 decreases at a certain

rate. An archaeologist measures this

decrease to find out how long ago the

organism died.

Archaeologists uncovered life-size figures of soldiers in an ancient tomb in China.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Archaeology 163

Archaeologists also try to understand the

culture from which artifacts came. For

example, tools such as arrow tips, knives,

and grinding stones can tell an archaeologist

how people got and prepared

their food.

An archaeologist sometimes works with

experts from other fields of study. Botanists,

zoologists, and geologists can help

to identify plants, animals, soils, and

rocks found along with artifacts.

#More to explore

Botany • Geology • Zoology

Archaeopteryx

A prehistoric bird, Archaeopteryx is best

described as a feathered dinosaur with

wings. Archaeopteryx is considered proof

that birds developed from dinosaurs,

because it had the traits of both.

When and Where

Archaeopteryx Lived

Archaeopteryx lived about 159 to 144

million years ago. All known Archaeopteryx

remains have been found in southern

Germany.

Physical Features

Archaeopteryx reached 2 feet (60 centimeters)

in length and had a wingspan of

2 feet (60 centimeters). It had wing

feathers like those of modern pigeons.

Archaeopteryx also shared several features

with a group of small, meat-eating dinosaurs,

however. It had well-developed

teeth and a long, slender and flexible

neck. It had long leg and foot bones,

and it had claws on its hands.

Behavior

Some scientists believe that Archaeopteryx

took off by running along the

ground and leaping into the air, flapping

its wings. However, other experts believe

that Archaeopteryx most likely spent a lot

of time perched in low-growing trees.

The animal could simply launch itself

from atop the branches and glide out on

short flights. When it was not in the

A team of archaeologists works

on a “dig,” or excavation, in

Peru.

Archaeopteryx

164 Archaeopteryx BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

trees it is possible that Archaeopteryx

swam and fished in the lagoons surrounding

the islands on which it lived.

Archaeopteryx, like both dinosaurs and

modern birds, reproduced by laying

eggs.

..More to explore

Bird • Dinosaur

Archery

The sport of shooting arrows with a bow

at a target is called archery. But archery

is not just a sport. For thousands of

years people used the skills of archery

mostly for war and for hunting. Even

today bow hunting is a popular activity.

Bows and Arrows

Bows allow people to shoot arrows farther

and with greater force than is possible

by simply throwing them. At its

most basic, a bow is a long, thin piece of

wood with a string stretched tightly

from one end to the other. The string

holds the wood in a curved position.

People competing in archery contests

today often use more complex bows

made of wood, plastic, or fiberglass.

An arrow is a long, thin piece of wood,

metal, or other material. It ends in a

pointed tip. Near the other end of the

arrow is a tail of feathers or plastic fins.

The tail helps the arrow fly straight.

The tail end of the arrow fits onto the

string of the bow. To shoot the arrow, an

archer pulls the string back and lets it

go. A lot of energy is stored up by the

string being stretched. When the string

is released, this energy is also released.

This sends the arrow flying with great

force.

Archery Competitions

There are many kinds of archery events.

In most kinds the archers shoot arrows

at round targets. Each target is marked

with a circle surrounded by several rings.

Archers earn a set number of points for

hitting the various areas on the target

with their arrows. They earn the most

points for hitting the circle in the center

and the least points for hitting the outer

ring.

The most common types of archery

used in contests are target archery and

field archery. In target archery archers

shoot a set number of arrows at targets

at set distances. For example, an archer

Modern archers shoot at targets up to 295

feet (90 meters) away.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Archery 165

may have to shoot 18 arrows at a target

that is 230 feet (70 meters) away. In

field archery the archer shoots arrows at

several targets on a course set up to imitate

hunting conditions.

World championships are held regularly

in target, field, and other kinds of

archery. The Summer Olympic Games

feature target archery events for men

and women, individually and in teams.

History

In prehistoric and ancient times many

peoples in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the

Americas made bows and arrows. The

bow was one of the main weapons of

war and hunting. The ancient Egyptians,

Greeks, and Chinese also practiced

archery as a sport.

The Huns, the Turks, the Mongols, and

other groups used the bow and arrow for

warfare while riding on horseback. Their

skills as archers helped them conquer

large parts of Asia.

English soldiers began using a large bow

called the longbow in the 1300s. It

helped them win great military victories

against France. The leading bow in other

parts of Europe at the time was the

crossbow. It was a small, powerful bow

attached crosswise to a piece of wood. It

had a groove to guide the arrow across

the wood and a lever to pull and release

the string.

In Europe guns replaced the bow and

arrow as the major military weapon in

the 1500s. Today soldiers in most parts

of the world use firearms. However,

many people still use a bow and arrow

to hunt. Archery has also grown popular

as a sport. In the 1900s archery became

an Olympic event.

#More to explore

Olympic Games •War •Weapon

Hundreds of years ago warriors used bows and arrows to fight battles.

166 Archery BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Architecture

The science and art of designing buildings

is known as architecture. People

who practice architecture are called

architects. Architects express an artistic

vision through the size, shape, color,

materials, and style of a building’s elements.

But unlike painters or sculptors,

who can create a work of art for its own

sake, architects must design a building

for a specific purpose. The architect can

produce a work of art, but it must also

be functional.

Elements of Design

The architect must consider how a

structure will be used and by whom. An

apartment building, a palace, a hospital,

a museum, an airport, and a sports arena

all have different building requirements.

Another factor in the design is the ideas

the structure should communicate. For

example, some buildings are designed to

impress people with a display of power

and wealth. Others are intended to

make everyone feel welcome.

Other factors are the location and surrounding

environment, including

weather, and the cost of materials. And

above all the architect must create a

stable structure.Walls and roofs can

buckle, crack, or collapse if they are not

properly designed. Over the centuries, as

people discovered building techniques

that worked, those features became standard

elements of design.

The arch was one of the first elements of

this kind. It is a curved structure used to

span an opening and support loads from

above. It allowed builders to create larger

doorways and other openings in walls.

The vault is a continuous arrangement

of arches, usually forming a ceiling or

roof. Another common support element

is the truss, or frame composed of triangular

sections.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Architecture 167

Materials

Building materials are chosen based on

many factors, including their appearance,

strength, availability, and cost.

Stone, brick, wood, and concrete have

been used for thousands of years. Stone

has often been used for large monuments

because it lasts a long time and is

easy to carve. But it is difficult to cut

and transport, and it is too weak for

certain support functions. Brick resists

fire and is easy to produce, transport,

and lay. Wood is very easy to acquire,

transport, and work. But it burns easily,

can develop mold, and may be eaten by

termites. Concrete is made by mixing

cement, water, and small pieces of sand

and stones. It can be poured into molds

to create various shapes, and it hardens

into a solid, fire-resistant material.

A major advance came in the 1800s with

the use of cast iron and then steel for

support elements. These materials are

fire-resistant, can be formed into many

shapes, and can produce very strong, tall

structures. Builders also began embedding

steel rods in concrete to make the

concrete stronger.

History

The earliest buildings were simple structures

made of materials that were easy to

find. Eventually people began to live in

large groups and form communities. As

they did so their buildings became more

elaborate. The Great Pyramids of the

ancient Egyptians were enormous stone

A pyramid in Saqqarah, Egypt, was built

for an ancient Egyptian king.

168 Architecture BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

tombs for their leaders. In ancient times

people in what is now Iraq built huge

brick temple towers, called ziggurats,

that were shaped like pyramids with

several levels rising in steps.

The traditional architecture of China

also developed in ancient times. It reflects

a deep feeling for the harmony and order

in nature.Traditional temples and houses

are built chiefly of wood and decorated

with tiles. The pagoda, a tower stretching

toward heaven, developed from the stupa

of ancient India. The stupa was a

dome-shaped monument, usually built

over the remains of a holy person.

Ancient Greece and Rome

The ancient Greeks and Romans established

what became known as the classical

style inWestern architecture. The

Greeks built simple structures of marble

and stone. They developed three

styles—called Doric, Ionic, and

Corinthian—identified by the type of

columns they use as a basic unit. Each

type of column had a special design,

called a capital, at the top. These styles

have been used inWestern architecture

ever since. A Greek temple was rectangular

and had a porch, called a portico,

at each end. Lines of columns supported

the roof. An outstanding example is the

Parthenon on the Acropolis in Athens.

The ancient Romans used round arches

and other structural methods that

allowed them to build enormous public

buildings. An amphitheater was a large

round or oval arena surrounded by several

rings of seats at different levels. One

of the most famous amphitheaters, the

Colosseum, was built in Rome in about

AD 70. A Roman basilica was a rectangular

public building with a raised platform

at one or both ends. The early

Christians adopted the shape of the

basilica for their churches.

Middle Ages

As Christianity spread throughout

Europe during the Middle Ages (about

AD 500 to 1500), many new churches

were built. In the east, Eastern Orthodox

Christianity was practiced in the

Byzantine Empire. A typical Byzantinestyle

church had a large dome on top of

a square building. Inside were marble

pillars and much decoration. The most

famous building in this style is the

Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey, completed

in 537. As the Eastern Orthodox

church spread to Greece, eastern

Europe, and Russia, domed churches

were built there too.

U.S. architects

copied ancient

Roman styles

in their

designs for

the U.S.

Capitol and

many other

government

buildings.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Architecture 169

Cordoba, Spain (700s–900s). In

southern Asia, Islamic architecture came

to include Hindu and Persian elements

too. White marble and red sandstone

were often used. A famous example of

this style is the Taj Mahal, a tomb built

in Agra, India, in the 1600s.

Renaissance, Baroque, and

Later Styles

A period called the Renaissance began in

Italy in the 1300s. Renaissance architects

revived classical Greek and Roman

styles, using columns, round arches, and

domes. Among the famous Italian

Renaissance architects were Filippo

Brunelleschi, Bramante, Leon Battista

Alberti, and Andrea Palladio. The

Renaissance style spread from Italy to

the rest of Europe.

Baroque architecture became popular in

southern Europe in the 1600s. It

emphasized dramatic and elaborate

decorations, vivid colors, and luxurious

materials. In France and England the

baroque was more subdued and was

often mixed with the classical style.

In the 1700s some European architects

returned to a simpler style called neoclassicism

(or new classicism). In

England the ancient form of the Roman

villa was adapted to suburban and country

houses. In the 1800s Gothic styles

became popular again in England and

the United States. Renaissance and

baroque styles were also used in the

United States for houses and public

buildings.

Modern Developments

The growing population and rising cost

of land in cities in the late 1800s made

it necessary to put tall buildings on

small lots. As buildings got taller the

walls had to become stronger. In 1885

William Le Baron Jenney designed the

Home Insurance Company Building in

Chicago, Illinois. It was the first building

in which the exterior walls were

entirely supported on an internal steel

frame. The steel frame led to the skyscraper

age.

One of the most influential architects of

the skyscraper was Chicago’s Louis Sullivan.

He believed that a building’s design

should reflect its function, and he often

used decoration based on natural forms.

His student Frank LloydWright became

one of the most influential architects of

the 1900s. He thought buildings should

be in harmony with their natural surroundings

and the people who use them.

The clean, simple lines of modernist

architecture are shown in

buildings designed by Mies van

der Rohe.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Architecture 171

His Prairie style emphasized horizontal

lines in houses with low, gently sloping

roofs.

Modernist buildings of the mid-1900s

typically had plain, rectangular forms

with no extra decoration. The architect

known as Le Corbusier designed buildings

in France with flowing interior

spaces, flat roofs, and large windows in

plain white walls. German architect

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe designed

steel and glass structures in simple geometric

forms with clean lines.

Beginning in the 1960s some architects

reacted against what they saw as the

cold, bare forms of modernism. These

architects were called postmodern. They

included Philip Johnson, Robert

Venturi, and Michael Graves. Some of

them playfully used classical features

such as arches and columns in new

ways. Starting in the late 20th century

architects such as Frank Gehry moved

away from traditional right angles. They

featured free-form curves in many of

their designs.

#More to explore

Acropolis • Brick and Tile • Cathedral

• Concrete • Church • Egypt, Ancient

• Greece, Ancient • Iron • Middle Ages

• Mosque • Pyramid • Renaissance

• Skyscraper • Steel • Taj Mahal

• Temple

Arctic Ocean

The Arctic is the smallest of the world’s

oceans. It occupies the most northern

region of Earth. The North Pole is near

the center of the Arctic Ocean.

Physical Features

The Arctic Ocean covers an area of

5,440,000 square miles (14,090,000

square kilometers). The landmasses of

Eurasia (Europe and Asia), North

America, and Greenland surround the

ocean. The Arctic has several islands on

its edges but none in the center, where

there is a permanent cover of ice. A

narrow passage called the Bering Strait

connects the Arctic Ocean with the

Pacific Ocean. The Greenland Sea

connects the Arctic with the Atlantic

The MARTa museum in Germany was

172 Arctic Ocean BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ocean. The deepest point in Arctic

waters is 18,050 feet (5,502 meters),

but the average depth is 3,240 feet (988

meters).

Two forms of ice are found in the

Arctic Ocean: sea ice and pack ice. Sea

ice is frozen seawater that forms and

melts depending on the season. The

mass of sea ice that remains frozen year

after year is called pack ice. Pack ice is

generally smoother and less salty than

other sea ice.

The pack ice in the Arctic is hundreds of

miles across. It drifts around the ocean

in a clockwise direction. It completes

one revolution around the North Pole

every 10 years.

Climate

All Arctic waters are cold, and the climate

in the Arctic regions is among the

harshest in the world. The coldest temperatures

can drop to .85� F (.65� C),

especially at the end of the long Arctic

winter.

Economy

Because of the ice in the Arctic, there are

very few fish in the main body of the

ocean. However, some of its surrounding

seas—the Barents, Greenland, and

Bering seas—are rich fishing grounds.

Whale hunting, or whaling, was once a

major Arctic industry, but governments

now limit it to protect the whales.

People still hunt seals in some areas.

Exploration

The Dutch and the English became the

leaders in Arctic exploration in the early

1500s. They were seeking a route, called

the Northeast Passage, across the Arctic

to the Far East. A Swedish explorer

finally made the trip in 1878–79. He

sailed from Norway, through the Russian

side of the Arctic Ocean, and out

into the Pacific. In the 1880s and 1890s

Fridtjof Nansen, a Norwegian explorer,

made more important explorations of

the Arctic Ocean.

Later explorers used dog sleds to try to

get across the ice to the North Pole. The

U.S. explorers Robert E. Peary and Matthew

Henson claimed to be the first to

reach the North Pole, in 1909.

Environmental Issues

Hunting in the Arctic has endangered

several types of animals, including

whales and walruses. Other economic

activities are also cause for concern. Oil

tankers that sail through the Arctic

waters are threatened by ice. If damaged,

they can release tons of oil into the

ocean waters.

A walrus sits on top of an iceberg in the

Arctic Ocean.

At the North

Pole the sun

does not rise

above the

horizon for six

months of the

year. For the

rest of the

year the sun

never sets.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arctic Ocean 173

Global warming may be the most serious

environmental problem for the Arctic

Ocean. Global warming is a slow rise in

Earth’s temperature that may be caused

by pollution. Some scientists warn that

this warming could cause the Arctic pack

ice to melt. The levels of oceans around

the world would then rise, and many

coastlines would disappear.

#More to explore

GlobalWarming • Ocean • Polar

Exploration

Ares

In ancient Greek mythology Ares was

the god of war. He was one of the 12

major gods believed to live on Mount

Olympus. His bird was the vulture, and

his animal was the dog. Ares is associated

with Mars, the god of war in

ancient Roman mythology.

Ares was the son of Zeus, the chief god,

and his wife, Hera. Ares was said to have

loved Aphrodite, the goddess of love.

Ares and Aphrodite had several children.

Even though Ares was one of the main

Greek gods, people did not worship him

much. The ancient Greeks thought Ares

was cruel. They believed that he enjoyed

sending war and disease to humans.

Unlike Ares, Mars was a popular and

important god. The Romans thought of

Mars as a powerful nature god, as well as

the god of war. They prayed to him to

protect their crops and farm animals.

The month of March was named after

Mars because it was the time when

farmers began to plant their crops. Mars,

the fourth planet from the sun, was also

named after him.

#More to explore

Aphrodite • Mythology

174 Ares BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Argentina

The country of Argentina takes up most

of the southern part of South America.

Its name is a Spanish word meaning

“Land of Silver,” after the silver found

there by Spanish explorers. The capital is

Buenos Aires.

Geography

Argentina is bordered by Chile, Bolivia,

Paraguay, Brazil, and Uruguay. The

Atlantic Ocean lies to the east.

Argentina has four major regions: the

Andes, the North, the Pampas, and Patagonia.

The Andes Mountains run along

the western edge of the country. Their

highest peak is Mount Aconcagua, at

22,831 feet (6,959 meters). The North

includes the Gran Chaco, an area of dry

lowlands, and Mesopotamia, an area

between the Parana and Uruguay rivers.

The central Pampas are grasslands. Patagonia

is a cold, dry, windy region in the

south.

Tierra del Fuego is a group of islands off

the southern tip of the continent.

Argentina shares the islands with Chile.

Most of Argentina has a mild climate

with cool, damp winters. The northeastern

areas get the most rain.

Plants and Animals

Argentina’s plants vary widely from

region to region. There are forests in the

Andes, thorny trees and cactuses in the

Parts of Patagonia are cold enough to be

covered by glaciers. Glaciers are masses of

moving ice.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Argentina 175

Gran Chaco, and rain forests in Mesopotamia.

In the Pampas there are grasses

in the humid section and scrub forests

in the dry section. Patagonia has zones

of broadleaf forests, steppe, and desert.

Argentina also has a wide variety of

wildlife. In the northwest live guanacos,

llamas, and alpacas. Deer, monkeys,

jaguars, and tapirs live in Gran Chaco

and Mesopotamia. Herds of cattle and

horses roam the Pampas. Parrots and

canaries live in the southern tip of the

country.

People

Most Argentines live in cities, especially

Buenos Aires. Most of the population

has European roots. About 10 percent of

Argentines are American Indian or mestizo

(a mixture of European and Indian).

Spanish is the national language. Roman

Catholicism is the main religion.

Economy

Banking and other services, manufacturing,

and trade are the most important

parts of the economy. Argentina’s natural

resources of petroleum (oil) and

natural gas help its industries. Farmers

produce soybeans, sugarcane, grains,

beef, wool, and wine. Exported goods

include food, petroleum, and metal

products. Tourists also bring billions of

dollars to Argentina each year.

History

Native peoples of what is now Argentina

included the Tehuelche, the Querandi,

the Puelche, the Diaguitas, and the Inca.

Spaniards arrived in the early 1500s.

They founded the colony of Buenos

Aires in 1536. The Europeans forced the

native people to work for them.

Argentina was first part of Spanish Peru

and then part of a province called Rio de

la Plata. Rio de la Plata declared its independence

in 1816 but soon broke up in

a civil war. After the war, a series of dictators,

presidents, and military leaders

ruled Argentina.

In the 1900s Argentina suffered many

economic and political problems. President

Juan Peron, elected in 1946, and

his wife Eva (Evita) were popular among

workers for a time. However, the military

overthrew Peron in 1955 and his

third wife, President Isabel Peron, in

1976. The military government then

imprisoned and killed thousands of citizens

in what became known as the Dirty

War.

In 1982 Argentina went to war with the

United Kingdom over the Falkland

Islands. The United Kingdom gained

control of the islands. The defeat caused

Argentina’s military leader to step down.

In 1983 the country held an election,

which ended military rule. Leaders then

worked to improve human rights and

the economy. In the late 20th and early

21st centuries, however, rising poverty

and unemployment led to protests

throughout Argentina.

..More to explore

Andes • Buenos Aires • Falkland Islands

• Human Rights • South America

• Tierra del Fuego

Facts About

ARGENTINA

Population

(2008 estimate)

39,737,000

Area

1,073,400 sq mi

(2,780,092 sq

km)

Capital

Buenos Aires

Form of

government

Federal republic

Major cities

Buenos Aires,

Cordoba, San

Justo, Rosario

176 Argentina BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Arikara

The Arikara tribe of Native Americans

traditionally lived along the Missouri

River in what is now in North Dakota.

Originally their culture was related to

that of the Pawnee tribe of present-day

Nebraska. They are now associated with

the Hidatsa and the Mandan peoples.

The early Arikara lived in villages situated

along riverbanks. There they built

dome-shaped houses made of mud

packed around a wooden frame. They

also constructed larger lodges, which

they used for religious ceremonies.

Near their villages, Arikara women

tended fields. They grew corn, beans,

squash, sunflowers, and tobacco. Arikara

men fished and hunted deer, elk, and

bison (buffalo).

French and English traders regularly

visited the Arikara to trade guns and

other European goods for animal furs.

In 1823 the Arikara killed 13 members

of a white trading party, and soon afterward

they became the first plains tribe to

battle the U.S. Army.

During the 1800s, the Arikara population

declined due to warfare and exposure

to European diseases, such as

smallpox. In order to protect themselves

from their enemies, the survivors of the

Arikara, Mandan, and Hidatsa tribes

moved to a single village. The three

tribes became officially known as the

Three Affiliated Tribes in 1934. Today

members of this group live on the Fort

Berthold Reservation in North Dakota.

At the end of the 20th century, there

were about 900 Arikara living in the

United States.

#More to explore

Hidatsa • Mandan • Native Americans

• Pawnee

Arithmetic

Arithmetic is the most elementary

branch of mathematics. It is the part of

mathematics that deals with counting as

well as addition, subtraction, multiplication,

and division. All of the other

branches of mathematics use the principles

and rules of arithmetic. Everyone

uses arithmetic every day. It is used

when buying something at a store, measuring

distances, or simply counting to

10. The word arithmetic comes from the

Greek word arithmos, which means

“number.”

#More to explore

Abacus • Mathematics • Numbers and

Counting Systems

Four Arikara Native Americans take part in

a ceremony.

The abacus is

a tool for

doing arithmetic.

It was

invented hundreds

of years

before the calculating

machine.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arithmetic 177

Arizona

Arizona is known as the Grand

Canyon State because of the

amazing landform found in the northern

part of the state. The awesome size

and beauty of the Grand Canyon make

it one of the most famous natural wonders

in the world. Phoenix is Arizona’s

capital and largest city.

Geography

Arizona is located in the southwestern

United States. The Colorado River separates

Arizona from Nevada and California

to the west. Arizona also borders

Utah on the north, New Mexico on the

east, and the country of Mexico on the

south.

Mountains run across the state from

northwest to southeast. To the south of

the mountains is a large area of desert

plains, valleys, and smaller mountain

ranges. Most of Arizona is very hot and

dry during the summer and pleasant

during the winter.

People

Though the majority of Arizonans are of

European origin, the state is notable for

its large Hispanic and Native American

minorities. About one quarter of the

people are Hispanic, mainly of Mexican

heritage. The Native American population

is larger than those of all states

except Oklahoma and California. The

Navajo are Arizona’s largest native

group. Many of them live on a huge

reservation that covers parts of Arizona,

Utah, and New Mexico. The state also

has small African American and Asian

minorities.

Most of Arizona’s people live in the

southern half of the state. Located in

south-central Arizona, Phoenix is the

state’s major city. Other cities include

Tucson, Mesa, Glendale, and Scottsdale.

The University of Arizona is located in

Tucson. Arizona State University’s main

campus is in Tempe, which is near Phoenix.

In the north are Prescott and Flagstaff,

the home of Northern Arizona

University.

Economy

Businesses dealing in real estate and

tourism are important parts of Arizona’s

economy. The state’s main manufactured

goods include computers and

178 Arizona BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

other electronic equipment, transportation

equipment, and metal goods. Cotton

and citrus fruit are major farm

products. Other crops include vegetables

and a variety of grains. Cattle are raised

on large ranches. Arizona is also a major

producer of copper.

History

Arizona has been home to Native

Americans for thousands of years. Prehistoric

peoples such as the Hohokam,

the Anasazi, and the Mogollon developed

advanced cultures in the region.

When Spanish explorers arrived in the

1500s they found Hopi, Papago, and

Pima Indians. Later the Apache, the

Navajo, and other tribes moved into the

area.

In 1539 a Roman Catholic priest

named Marcos de Niza claimed the

land for Spain. For nearly 300 years the

Spanish continued to explore and settle

in the Arizona area. After gaining

independence from Spain in 1821,

Mexico ruled the area. The United

States took control of the land in 1848,

following its victory over Mexico in the

Mexican War.

The discovery of gold, silver, and

copper in the 1850s brought many

miners to the area. The opening of

railroads in the 1880s also brought

settlers from the eastern United States

into the area. Arizona became a

territory of the United States in 1863

and a state in 1912. Copper mining

remained the state’s most important

industry until the 1950s.

Arizona’s population grew quickly after

WorldWar II. Many of the soldiers that

had trained at military bases in Arizona

returned with their families after the war

ended.

Since the late 20th century Arizona has

been one of the country’s fastestgrowing

states. In 2000 it was the 20th

state in population. By the end of the

decade it had moved up to 14th.

..More to explore

Anasazi • Colorado River • Grand

Canyon • Hohokam Culture • Navajo

• Phoenix

The Hohokam people carved many designs

into rocks hundreds of years ago. Today

these carvings can be seen at Saguaro

National Park in Arizona.

Facts About

ARIZONA

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

5,130,632—

rank, 20th state;

(2008 estimate)

6,500,180—

rank, 14th state

Capital

Phoenix

Area

113,998 sq mi

(295,254 sq

km)—rank, 6th

state

Statehood

February 14,

1912

Motto

Ditat Deus (God

Enriches)

State bird

Cactus wren

State flower

Blossom of the

saguaro cactus

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arizona 179

Arkansas

The U.S. state of Arkansas got

its name from a word that early

French explorers used for the local Quapaw

Indians and the river along which

they settled. Arkansas’s official nickname

is the Natural State, which refers to the

state’s beautiful countryside of mountains,

lakes, and streams. The capital is

Little Rock.

Geography

Arkansas is located in the south-central

United States. It borders Missouri on the

north, Oklahoma and Texas on the west,

and Louisiana on the south. On the east

the Mississippi River separates Arkansas

from Tennessee and Mississippi.

Highlands cover northern and western

Arkansas, and lowlands cover the south

and east. The Arkansas River divides the

highlands into the Ouachita Mountains

on the south and the Ozark Mountains

(or Ozark Plateau) on the north. The

highlands are densely forested. The lowlands

are plains with good farmland and

some hills. Arkansas generally has mild

winters and hot, humid summers.

People

About four fifths of Arkansans are of

European heritage. African Americans

are the largest minority, making up more

than 15 percent of the state’s population.

Almost half of the people live in

rural settings. Little Rock is the largest

city. It is located in the middle of the

state on the south bank of the Arkansas

River. The main campus of the University

of Arkansas is in the northern city of

Fayetteville.

Economy

Leading farm products in Arkansas are

poultry (especially broiler chickens),

cattle, soybeans, and rice. The processing

of farm products is the state’s leading

manufacturing industry. Many

Arkansans are employed as service pro-

A waterfall tumbles over a rock ledge in the

Ozark Mountains in Arkansas.

180 Arkansas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

viders in such areas as government, retail

trade, and health care.Wal-Mart, the

largest chain of retail stores in the world,

began in Arkansas.

History

What is now Arkansas was originally

home to several Native American

groups, including the Caddo, the Osage,

and the Quapaw. The first Europeans to

visit the area were Spaniards. Hernando

de Soto arrived in the early 1540s in

search of gold. But the French built the

first permanent settlement, in 1686.

In 1803 the United States acquired the

region from France as part of the Louisiana

Purchase. Arkansas became a U.S.

territory in 1819 and a state in 1836. In

1861, however, it withdrew from the

Union during the American CivilWar

and joined the Confederacy. It was readmitted

to the Union in 1868.

Arkansas remained largely undeveloped

and poor for the first half of the 1900s.

During the civil rights movement the

state was a focus of national attention.

In 1957 Governor Orval Faubus tried to

prevent African American students from

entering Little Rock’s all-white schools.

The federal government stepped in and

forced the schools to allow racial integration.

The economy of Arkansas began to

improve in the late 1950s. The state

worked to bring in manufacturing

plants, which created new jobs.

One of the most notable people in

Arkansas politics was Bill Clinton. After

five terms as the state governor, he

served as president of the United States

from 1993 to 2001.

..More to explore

American CivilWar • Civil Rights

Movement • Clinton, Bill • Little Rock

A farmer in Arkansas inspects

his crop of rice.

African American students walk to school in

Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957. Troops sent

by the federal government stand by to make

sure the students are allowed to enter the

school.

Facts About

ARKANSAS

Flag

Population

(2000 census)

2,673,400—

rank, 33rd state;

(2008 estimate)

2,855,390—

rank, 32nd state

Capital

Little Rock

Area

53,179 sq mi

(137,732 sq

km)—rank, 29th

state

Statehood

June 15, 1836

Motto

Regnat Populus

(The People Rule)

State bird

Mockingbird

State flower

Apple blossom

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arkansas 181

Arm

Humans, apes, and monkeys have two

upper limbs called arms. Each arm

hangs from a shoulder and contains

bones, joints, and muscles. These parts

work together to give the arm a wide

range of movement. The arm can bend,

rotate, swing back and forth, and move

from side to side.

Structure

There are three bones in the arm. The

upper bone is called the humerus. The

top of the humerus fits into a cuplike

socket in the shoulder. Together they

make a joint that is held together by

tough strands called ligaments. This

joint allows the upper arm to swing and

rotate. A pair of muscles is attached to

the humerus. One muscle bends the

arm. The other muscle straightens it.

The lower end of the humerus connects

to a bone called the ulna at a joint in the

elbow. The ulna and another bone, the

radius, go from the elbow to the wrist.

This part of the arm is called the forearm.

A pair of muscles in the forearm

makes it twist from side to side. The

forearm ends in the hand.

Function

Humans, apes, and monkeys use their

arms and hands to push and pull objects,

to fight and defend themselves, and to

carry their young. Apes and monkeys also

use their arms to swing on branches and

to move around on the ground.

Arms in Other Animals

Many other animals have two front

limbs, but only primates have true arms.

The two front limbs of other animals are

known as legs, flippers, or wings. Both

starfishes and octopuses have limbs that

people sometimes call arms. But these

arms have no bones or joints. Starfish

arms are also called rays, and octopus

arms are also called tentacles.

#More to explore

Bone • Hand • Muscle • Primate

The human arm is similar to the front limbs

of other animals.

182 Arm BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Armada, Spanish

The Spanish Armada was a fleet of ships

that Spain sent to attack England in

1588. The English defeated the Spanish,

which made Spain less powerful in

Europe.

The Armada sailed in May 1588 with

130 ships and 27,000 men. They

reached the English Channel in late July

and fought a few battles. On August 8

the English won a decisive victory. They

had fewer ships, but they had big guns

and could fire at long range. This was

unusual because at the time, sea battles

were fought at close range so that soldiers

could climb aboard enemy ships.

The defeat of the Spanish Armada saved

England from invasion. It also was the

first major gun battle at sea. For hundreds

of years afterward, gun-armed

warships ruled the seas.

#More to explore

England • Spain

Armadillo

Armadillos are small mammals related to

sloths and anteaters. They have a tough

armor that protects them from enemies

and other dangers. The word armadillo

is Spanish for “little armored one.”

There are 20 species, or types, of armadillo.

They live mainly in or near the

tropical (hot) regions of Central and

South America. One species lives in the

southern United States. Most species live

in open areas, but some live in forests.

Armadillos are stout with short legs and

strong, curved claws. They range in

length from about 6 inches (15 centimeters)

to 5 feet (1.5 meters). Armadillos

are usually brownish black with some

yellow markings. Their armor is a type

of hardened skin. It is made up of solid

plates and flexible bands. It covers most

of the body, including the head and usually

the tail.

Most armadillos have very little hair.

The pink fairy armadillo, however, has a

coat of soft, white hair on its underparts

and sides.

Armadillos are usually active at night.

They live in burrows, or holes that they

dig in the ground. Armadillos also dig to

find food. They eat mainly termites and

other insects, worms, roots, and small

animals.

Female armadillos usually bear one to 12

identical young. All develop from a

single egg inside the mother.

#More to explore

Anteater • Mammal • Sloth

The nine-banded armadillo is the only kind

of armadillo that lives in the United States.

Some types of

armadillo are

able to roll

themselves into

a ball to protect

their

underparts

from enemies.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Armadillo 183

Armenia

The Republic of Armenia is one of the

world’s oldest centers of civilization.

Yerevan, the capital, is also one of the

world’s oldest cities.

Geography

Armenia is located in western Asia,

between the Black Sea and the Caspian

Sea. It is bordered by Georgia, Azerbaijan,

Iran, and Turkey. Armenia is a

mountainous country. The Lesser Caucasus

Mountains stretch across the

north. Armenia’s highest peak, Mount

Aragats, is 13,418 feet (4,090 meters)

high. The area has experienced many

earthquakes, including one in 1988 that

killed some 25,000 people.

Armenia has a dry climate. Summers are

generally hot.Winters are generally not

very cold, except in the mountains and

on the windy plateaus.

Plants and Animals

Junipers, dog roses, and honeysuckles

grow in the lower areas of Armenia.

Thorny bushes cover the mountain

slopes. There are beech forests in the

northeast and oak forests in the southeast.

Among the animals found in Armenia

are wild boars, wildcats, jackals, Syrian

bears, lynx, ibex (a kind of wild goat),

and mountain sheep.

People

About 98 percent of the people are ethnic

Armenians. There are small numbers

of Kurds and other groups. Armenian is

the official language. Most people are

The Khor Virap monastery is an important

religious site for Armenians. It is associated

with Gregory the Illuminator. He introduced

Christianity to the Armenians more than

1,700 years ago. Behind the monastery

rises Mount Ararat, in Turkey.

184 Armenia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Christians of the Armenian Apostolic

church. Historically, the Armenian

church has been independent of both

the Roman Catholic and the Eastern

Orthodox churches.

Economy

Despite the growth of cities and industries,

agriculture is very important to

Armenia’s economy. Farmers raise potatoes,

wheat, tomatoes, barley, grapes,

watermelons, sheep, and cattle. Factories

make food products, metal products,

jewelry, machinery, chemicals, tobacco,

and textiles. Mines provide copper.

Transportation can be difficult because

of the mountains, but Armenia has a

network of roads and railways and an

airport.

History

Armenian civilization began as early as

the 500s BC. It reached its greatest size

and influence in the 1st century BC.

The Roman Empire conquered

Armenia in 30 BC. From the 300s to

the 1800s Persians, Byzantines, Arabs,

Mongols, Turks, Russians, and others

conquered and ruled Armenia at

different periods.

During 1895–96 Ottoman Turks killed

thousands of Armenians, who wanted

independence from the Ottoman

Empire. In 1915, at the beginning of

WorldWar I, another 600,000 Armenians

died of starvation or were killed by

Turks. After the war Armenia enjoyed a

brief period of independence.

In 1920 the Soviet Union invaded

Armenia and forced it to accept a Communist

government. Two years later the

Soviets formed the Transcaucasian Soviet

Federated Socialist Republic, which

included Armenia, Azerbaijan, and

Georgia. The three countries became

separate republics within the Soviet

Union in 1936.

On September 23, 1991, Armenia

declared its independence from the

Soviet Union. However, Armenia still

relied on economic and military help

from Russia.

In the 1990s Armenia fought with

neighboring Azerbaijan over control of

Nagorno-Karabakh, an area of Azerbaijan

with a largely Armenian population.

Armenia took control of the region

and other Azerbaijani territory in 1993.

The continuing conflict hurt Armenia’s

economy. Many Armenians left the

country.

..More to explore

Azerbaijan • Ottoman Empire • Union

of Soviet Socialist Republics • Yerevan

Schoolchildren walk toward a monument in

Yerevan. The monument honors thousands

of Armenians who were killed in 1915.

Facts About

ARMENIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

2,996,000

Area

11,484 sq mi

(29,743 sq km)

Capital

Yerevan

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Yerevan, Gyumri,

Vanadzor

(Kirovakan)

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Armenia 185

Armor

When people think of armor, images of a

knight covered in clanking metal often

come to mind.However, the word armor

is used for any kind of clothing that is

intended to protect the wearer in combat.

As weapons have changed, armor has

changed also. An outfit that stops an

arrow might not work against a bullet.

Like early clothing, early armor came

from animals. Thousands of years ago

warriors cushioned their bodies against

the blows of clubs with layers of furry

hides. Chinese warriors in the 1000s BC

wore armor made of layers of rhinoceros

hide.

Later, people learned to use plates made

of tough material such as metal, horn,

wood, or plastic. Plate armor provided

great protection to the body. The ancient

Greeks used bronze plates made to fit the

body and limbs. The ancient Romans

favored plate armor made of iron.

Since ancient times warriors have worn armor to protect themselves during battle. Armor

has taken many different forms over the centuries.

186 Armor BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Plate armor was not very flexible, however,

and in the early Middle Ages mail,

or chain mail, became the main form of

armor. Mail was made of interlinked

rings of iron or steel. Mail was flexible

and could be worn as a shirt, as leggings,

or as a hood.

By the 1300s, plate armor was being

made in such a way that the person

wearing it could move freely. The armor

that protected the knights of Europe

during the late Middle Ages was made

of large steel or iron plates. This kind of

armor replaced mail.

As firearms became more powerful,

armor had to get heavier. Eventually

armor became too heavy and bulky to be

practical. Plate armor disappeared completely

in the 1700s.

Some forms of armor continue to be

important in modern times. Soldiers

wear helmets and other protective

clothing. A common form of modern

body armor used today is the

bulletproof vest. Worn especially by

police officers, it often has a lining of

overlapping steel disks. Fiberglass and

other light artificial materials are

sometimes used as well.

Armstrong,

Lance

U.S. athlete Lance Armstrong was one

of the greatest professional cyclists. He is

the only person to have won the Tour de

France—the world’s most difficult

bicycle race—seven times.

Lance Armstrong was born on September

18, 1971, in Plano, Texas. He was

good at sports at an early age. After finishing

high school, he devoted himself

to cycling. In 1990 he won that sport’s

U.S. Amateur Championship.

Armstrong began to earn money as a

professional cyclist in 1992. The next

year he won the world championships in

men’s road racing and many other competitions.

In 1996 Armstrong was ranked the top

male cyclist in the world. But later that

year he fell seriously ill with cancer. Surgery

and chemical treatments called chemotherapy

eventually saved his life.

Doctors doubted that Armstrong could

return to a sport as physically demanding

as cycling. However, Armstrong won

the Tour de France in 1999. He went on

to win every Tour de France for the next

six years. After his victory in 2005, Arm-

Lance Armstrong

was

only the second

person

from the

United States

ever to win the

Tour de

France.

Lance Armstrong (in yellow) nears the end

of the Tour de France bicycle race in 2005.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Armstrong, Lance 187

strong retired from professional cycling.

He devoted himself to raising awareness

about cancer. He returned to racing in

2009 and placed third in the Tour de

France that year.

..More to explore

Bicycle • Cycling

Armstrong, Louis

U.S. trumpet player and singer Louis

Armstrong was one of the world’s

greatest jazz musicians. He influenced

nearly all jazz horn players who came

after him.

Louis Daniel Armstrong was born on

August 4, 1901, in New Orleans, Louisiana.

As a boy he earned some money

by singing in the streets. After he fired a

pistol one New Year’s Eve, he was sent

to a home for troubled kids in 1913.

There he learned to play cornet.

In 1922 cornetist King Oliver invited

Armstrong to Chicago to join his band.

Armstrong later joined Fletcher

Henderson’s big band in New York City

for a year.

Armstrong returned to Chicago and

began playing the trumpet. By 1929 he

was famous, and he toured the United

States and Europe as a trumpet soloist

accompanied by big bands. He started

performing popular songs in addition to

jazz. He also began to sing lyrics in a low,

rough voice that was very distinctive.

After 1935 Armstrong appeared in

movies and on radio and television. In

1940 he formed Louis Armstrong’s

All-Stars, a Dixieland band with six

musicians. For most of the rest of his

life, he toured with this group. He died

on July 6, 1971, in New York City.

..More to explore

Jazz • Popular Music

Armstrong, Neil

In 1969 U.S. astronaut Neil Armstrong

became the first person to walk on the

Moon. Millions of people watched on

television as Armstrong stepped out of

his spacecraft and said, “That’s one

small step for [a] man, one giant leap for

mankind.”

Neil Alden Armstrong was born on

August 5, 1930, in Wapakoneta, Ohio.

He became interested in airplanes at a

young age. He received his pilot’s

license on his 16th birthday. After high

school Armstrong became an air cadet

in the U.S. Navy. In the 1950s he was a

Louis Armstrong pilot in the Korean War.

Louis Armstrong’s

nickname

was

“Satchmo.”

188 Armstrong, Louis BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

In 1955 Armstrong joined the National

Aeronautics and Space Administration

(NASA) as a test pilot. Seven years later

Armstrong became an astronaut.

On July 16, 1969, Armstrong, Edwin E.

(Buzz) Aldrin, Jr., and Michael Collins

left for the Moon in the Apollo 11

spacecraft. Four days later, Aldrin and

Armstrong landed on the Moon in the

Eagle, a landing vehicle that separated

from the Apollo spacecraft. Armstrong

was the first to step out onto the Moon’s

surface. For more than two hours he and

Aldrin collected samples of Moon soil,

made measurements, and took photographs

before they began their return

trip to Earth.

Armstrong retired from NASA in 1971.

He continued to teach and to work on

committees about the space program.

#More to explore

Moon • Space Exploration

Army

An army is a large, organized group of

soldiers trained to fight other armies or

groups. An army’s main job is usually to

defend its country in times of war. An

army protects the country against

attacks or invasion by enemies. It may

also fight in other parts of the world.

An army is usually one of several major

branches of a country’s armed forces. In

the United States the other major

branches are the Air Force and the Navy

(which includes the Marine Corps).

Armies Today

Modern armies have ranks, or levels of

power. The soldiers who command soldiers

in lower ranks are called officers.

The officers in the highest ranks are the

generals. The generals are in charge of

the army as a whole. Beneath the generals

are the commissioned officers. They

are graduates of special military training

schools. Beneath them are the noncommissioned

officers. These are men and

women who started out as ordinary soldiers

and moved up through the ranks.

The ordinary soldiers, or privates, make

up the lowest ranks of an army.

Neil Armstrong

Soldiers stand in formation at a U.S. Army

post in Hawaii.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Army 189

Sometimes people are drafted, or

ordered by their government to join the

army. Drafts are common in times of

war when too few people volunteer. For

example, the United States, Canada, and

the United Kingdom had drafts during

WorldWar II. Today, however, volunteers

make up these countries’ armies.

Some countries, such as China and

Israel, still require most of their citizens

to serve time in the army.

History

The first army was probably organized

in Sumer, a civilization that began more

than 6,000 years ago in the Middle East.

The earliest soldiers fought with swords,

shields, and bows and arrows. They protected

themselves with armor.

Over the centuries, new developments

in warfare changed the way armies

fought. Arabs and Europeans invented

weapons that used gunpowder in the

1300s. Armies began using machine

guns in the 1800s and bombs in the

1900s. Armies continue to develop new

weapons. New technology also has

helped improve communications and

protect soldiers on the battlefield.

#More to explore

Air Force • Armor • Bomb • Marines

• Navy •War

Artemis

In ancient Greek mythology Artemis

was the goddess of wild animals and

hunting. She was one of the 12 main

gods believed to live on Mount Olympus.

Artemis was associated with the

Roman goddess Diana because they

shared many of the same characteristics.

The cypress tree and wild animals were

sacred to Artemis.

Artemis was the daughter of Zeus, the

chief Greek god, and Leto. Leto was a

China has the

world’s largest

army.

190 Artemis BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Titan, or one of the giants who once

ruled the world. Artemis was the twin

sister of Apollo, the god of music and

light. Apollo was associated with the

sun, while Artemis was associated with

the moon. Some people believed that

Artemis helped women during childbirth.

Artemis was a protector of animals,

but she also hunted them. Artists

showed Artemis with a deer or with her

hunting dog and silver bow, a weapon

used to shoot arrows.

According to one story, Artemis loved

the giant huntsman Orion and lived

with him in the forest. Eventually, Artemis

became jealous. She thought that

Orion loved another woman. In

revenge, Artemis shot Orion with an

arrow. Orion was placed in the sky after

his death. There he became a constellation

(a group of stars).

#More to explore

Apollo • Greece, Ancient • Mythology

• Zeus

Arthritis

Arthritis is a common medical problem

for older people. Sufferers of arthritis

experience swelling, pain, and redness in

the joints—the places where the bones

meet. Arthritis commonly affects the

spine, hips, knees, and hands. It may

also attack many other parts of the body.

In severe cases, people may find it difficult

or even impossible to move the

joints at all.

Arthritis seems to run in families. People

whose parents or grandparents had

arthritis often get it themselves. Infections

and injuries can cause rarer types

of arthritis.

In most cases, arthritis is a lifelong condition

without a cure. However, aspirin,

ibuprofen, or other drugs may help to

relieve the pain and swelling. Exercise

may help to increase movement. In

some cases doctors may perform surgery.

They can remove unhealthy tissue or

replace severely damaged joints with

ones made of plastic or metal.

#More to explore

Bone • Medicine

Arthur, Chester

When President James A. Garfield was

assassinated in 1881, Chester A. Arthur,

the vice president, rose to the highest

office of the United States. Because

many people did not believe that Arthur

would make a good president, he

worked hard to gain the public’s respect.

Arthritis can bend fingers out of shape.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arthur, Chester 191

Early Life and Career

Chester Alan Arthur was born on October

5, 1829, in the village of Fairfield,

Vermont. He was the son ofWilliam

Arthur, a Baptist minister, and Malvina

Stone. Chester entered Union College in

Schenectady, New York, when he was

only 15. After graduating at age 18, he

studied law while teaching. In 1859

Arthur married Ellen Lewis Herndon.

The couple had three children.

Beginning in 1854, Arthur worked as a

lawyer in New York City. He became

known for his antislavery principles.

Arthur won the case of slaves who

demanded their freedom after coming to

the free state of New York. Arthur also

represented an African American woman

who had been forced off a streetcar

reserved for whites. His success led to a

New York law against discrimination in

public transportation.

Political Career

In the 1850s Arthur helped to organize

the new Republican Party in New York

State. In 1868 he worked on Ulysses S.

Grant’s successful presidential campaign.

In 1871 President Grant appointed

Arthur customs collector for the port of

New York City. In 1880 the Republicans

nominated Garfield for president and

Arthur for vice president. The Republi-

October 5, November 18,

1829 1854 1880 1881 1883 1885 1886

Arthur is born

in Fairfield,

Vermont.

Arthur becomes

a lawyer. In his

law career he

defended the

rights of African

Americans.

Arthur is

elected vice

president under

President James

A. Garfield.

Arthur

becomes

president after

President

Garfield dies.

Arthur reforms

the civil

service, the

system of

government

employees.

Arthur retires

and Grover

Cleveland

becomes

president.

Arthur dies in

New York City.

T I M E L I N E

Chester A. Arthur

192 Arthur, Chester BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

cans won the election, and Arthur took

the country’s second highest office.

Presidency

On July 2, 1881, a man with a history

of mental illness shot President Garfield.

Upon Garfield’s death in September,

Arthur became the country’s 21st president.

The public considered him

unqualified for the post.

However, Arthur surprised everyone by

reforming the civil service, the system of

government employees. Until that time

many politicians gave jobs in the government

to friends, party members, and

people who paid them money or gave

them gifts. In 1883 Arthur signed the

first civil-service law, the Pendleton Act,

which required that government

employees be hired for their skills.

Arthur vetoed, or rejected, a law that

would have banned the immigration of

Chinese people for 20 years. However,

he signed the Chinese Exclusion Act of

1882, which stopped Chinese immigration

for 10 years. Arthur also helped to

modernize and expand the U.S. Navy.

Arthur’s popularity grew with each year

of his presidency. In 1884, however, the

Republicans nominated James G. Blaine

for president. (Blaine lost the election to

Grover Cleveland.) Arthur finished his

term as president and then returned to

New York City. He died at his home on

November 18, 1886.

#More to explore

Garfield, James A. • United States

Arthur, King

Arthur was a legendary king of ancient

Britain. He appears in a group of stories

that are together known as the

Arthurian legend. The stories are a

combination of history, myth, romance,

fairy tale, and religion. They have

captured peoples’ imagination for many

hundreds of years.

Some scholars believe that Arthur was a

real person who lived in Britain in the

AD 400s or 500s. According to these

scholars he led the Christian Celts in

wars against Saxon invaders. After

Arthur was killed in battle, his people

fled toWales and to Brittany in France.

There they told stories of Arthur’s bravery

and goodness. Eventually he was

remembered as a hero and a wise and

all-powerful king.

King Arthur’s followers were known as the

Knights of the Round Table. They used a

round table so that each would have an

equally important place at the table.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Arthur, King 193

The Legend of Arthur

According to the stories, Arthur was the

son of King Uther Pendragon. As an

infant, Arthur was given to Merlin the

magician. The young Arthur pulled the

sword Excalibur from the stone in which

it had been magically fixed. This proved

that he should be king because no one

else had been able to pull the sword

from the stone. In another version of the

story, the Lady of the Lake handed

Arthur the sword, with only her arm

visible above the water.

King Arthur married Guinevere and

held court at Camelot. He and his

strong and brave knights all sat as equals

around a great round table. They came

to be known as the Order of the Round

Table. Sir Lancelot was the greatest of

the knights; Sir Galahad, the most

noble; and Perceval, the most innocent.

Knights were soldiers who swore loyalty

to a lord. The real Arthur, if he existed,

lived long before the age of knighthood.

Nevertheless, knights and poets of that

period depicted him as a knight like

themselves.

King Arthur was a mighty warrior.

However, his traitorous nephew, Mordred,

rose in rebellion. Arthur was badly

wounded in battle. His body was carried

to the island of Avalon to be healed. At

some future time, according to legend,

he will return to rule again.

In some stories about Arthur he and his

knights sought theHoly Grail. In

Christian legend, the Grail is the cup

used by Jesus at the Last Supper.

According to legend, only the pure could

see the Grail.

Books about Arthur

Many French and English writers of the

Middle Ages wrote down Arthurian

legends. Sir Thomas Malory, an English

writer of the 1400s, brought together

many tales in his book Le Morte Darthur

(“The Death of Arthur”). Most modern

versions are based on Malory’s book.

#More to explore

Celt • Folktale • Knight

Articles of

Confederation

The Articles of Confederation served as

the first constitution of the United

States. The articles went into effect on

An English

writer named

T.H. White

wrote four

novels about

King Arthur

and his court.

The novels

were published

in one

volume called

The Once and

Future King in

1958.

The Articles of Confederation

were printed for everyone to

read.

194 Articles of Confederation BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

March 1, 1781. Soon afterward,

however, the people realized that there

were problems with the document. On

March 4, 1789, the articles were replaced

by the U.S. Constitution.

The articles were written by the representatives

of the American Colonies who

made up the Second Continental Congress.

When the colonies declared their

independence from Great Britain in

1776, they realized they needed a new

plan of government. The colonies deeply

resented the laws that the British Parliament

had imposed on them, so they set

up a weak central government. The only

branch of government was a Congress

with one house. Congress had power

over military and foreign affairs but not

over the affairs of each state. It could not

enforce its powers or collect taxes.

Because of these problems, state leaders

wrote a new constitution in 1787. The

new constitution strengthened the federal

government. It provided for executive

and judicial branches and a

legislature with two houses.

#More to explore

Continental Congress • United States

Constitution

Artificial

Intelligence

Intelligence is the ability to learn and to

deal with new situations. When a computer

or a robot solves a problem or uses

language, it may seem to be intelligent.

However, this type of intelligence is different

from human intelligence. It is

called artificial intelligence, or AI.

Artificial intelligence comes from sets of

instructions that people write. These

instructions are called programs. Computers

use programs to analyze, or study,

large amounts of information quickly.

Then they pick answers or actions from

among many choices. Computer programs

can be used for playing games,

making medical decisions, and translating

languages.

But analyzing information is not the

same as understanding a problem as

humans do. Computers can only use

logic, or the relationships among facts,

to figure out problems. Humans use

many skills besides logic when making

decisions. They use such things as imagination,

awareness, emotion, and values.

No one knows yet whether these abilities

can be programmed into a computer.

#More to explore

Computer • Robot

Russian chess player Garry Kasparov thinks

about a move during a match against a

computer. The computer, named Deep Junior,

was programmed to play chess.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Artificial Intelligence 195

Arts

Before the 1700s the word art was often

used to describe any skill that produced

something. At the time both painting

and farming were thought of as arts.

Today people think of the arts more as

forms of expression. An artist uses skill

and imagination to create a product.

This product often draws a response

from others. These responses can

include admiration of a beautiful sculpture,

feelings of sadness from a moving

poem, or pleasure from a funny play.

Individual arts are often grouped into

categories based on similarities. Theater,

dance, and music are examples of performing

arts. Poetry, short stories, and

novels are literature—words crafted to

express ideas. Painting, drawing, sculpture,

and photography are examples of

visual art, or art that is enjoyed through

sight. Some arts, such as architecture

(the design of buildings) and motion

pictures (movies), are harder to classify.

An art form may include combinations

of several other forms. For instance, an

opera brings together a dramatic plot,

music that is both played and sung,

scenery and costumes, acting, and perhaps

dance.

Art forms that result in “useful” products

are sometimes called decorative arts

or crafts. Furniture design, metalworking,

basketry, and pottery are a few

examples of decorative arts.

#More to explore

Architecture • Dance • Decorative Arts

• Drawing • Literature • Movie • Music

• Opera • Painting • Photography

• Poetry • Pottery • Sculpture • Theater

Arts, Decorative

#see Decorative Arts.

Asante

#see Ashanti.

Ash

Several types of ash tree are valued for

their hardwood or their beauty. There

are about 70 different species, or types,

of ash tree. They are members of the

same scientific family as olive trees, jasmines,

and lilacs.

Most ash trees grow in the northern half

of the world. They grow best where it is

neither extremely hot nor cold. They

usually need plenty of sunshine.

Several different types of art are on display

in the Hermitage museum in Saint Petersburg,

Russia.

196 Arts BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Some ashes are considered shrubs, but

most are trees. Ash trees are typically

small to medium in height. However,

some types may grow taller than 100

feet (30 meters). Most ashes have a

strong, straight trunk with gray bark.

The spreading branches usually form a

rounded shape. The green leaves are

made up of several parts called leaflets.

In autumn the leaves of most ashes turn

yellow or purple before they are shed for

the winter. The flowers are usually small

and grow in clusters. Each seed has a

papery wing shaped like a dragonfly

wing.

Several kinds of ash tree have strong,

tough wood. These hardwood ashes

include the white, green, black, blue,

and Oregon types in North America

and the European type in Europe.

Their wood is used to make such

products as baseball bats, hockey sticks,

tennis rackets, oars, furniture, tool

handles, and barrels. Ash trees are also

often planted in cities to provide shade

and color.

#More to explore

Olive • Tree

Ashanti

The Ashanti, or Asante, people formed a

powerfulWest African kingdom in the

1700s and 1800s. The kingdom grew

wealthy from the slave trade and conquered

many peoples. In 1874, however,

the kingdom became a colony of Great

Britain. The Ashanti territory is now

part of the country of Ghana.

The rise of the Ashanti began in the

1670s, when Ashanti ruler Osei Tutu

crushed all opponents in the region. He

then declared himself Asantehene, or

king. The next ruler, OpokuWare, continued

the Ashanti’s conquests. During

his reign, from 1720 to 1750, the

empire reached its peak.

An Ashanti chief wears fine

clothing and gold jewelry.

The spreading branches of an ash tree give

the tree a rounded shape.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ashanti 197

Throughout the 1700s, the Ashanti supplied

captives to British and Dutch slave

traders on the coast. In return, the Europeans

provided the Ashanti with firearms

that they used to make more

conquests. Great Britain outlawed the

slave trade in 1807. After that, the

Ashanti had to rely more heavily on

other trade items, such as gold, ivory,

and cocoa.

Serious trouble came when Britain

expanded its own empire inland. In

1874 British forces captured Kumasi,

the capital of the Ashanti. The Ashanti

soon lost their hold over the groups they

had ruled over. In 1902 Ashanti lands

were made part of a British colony called

the Gold Coast. In 1957 the Gold Coast

became the independent country of

Ghana.

The Ashanti people still live in a region

centered on Kumasi. Kumasi is a busy

and prosperous city. But most Ashanti

live in villages. They are mainly farmers

who produce plantains, bananas, cassava,

yams, and cacao.

#More to explore

Ghana • Slavery

Ashe, Arthur

Tennis champion Arthur Ashe was an

African American who triumphed in a

traditionally white sport. He was ranked

among the top 10 players in the world

for 12 years.

Arthur Robert Ashe, Jr., was born in

Richmond, Virginia, on July 10, 1943.

He started playing tennis as a child.

Between 1955 and 1963, Arthur won

11 national youth championships. At

the same time, he worked hard in

school. He won a scholarship to attend

the University of California at Los Angeles

(UCLA).

Arthur Ashe returns a ball during

the U.S. National Championships

in 1965.

198 Ashe, Arthur BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

In 1968 Ashe won the U.S. Open tournament.

The tournament is one of the

four major events in tennis each year.

The others areWimbledon (in

England), the French Open, and the

Australian Open. Ashe’s win was the

first ever for an African American man

in one of these tournaments. Afterward,

he regularly reached the semifinals and

finals of the tournaments. Ashe won the

Australian Open in 1970. In 1975 he

won the top prize at Wimbledon.

Ashe retired after suffering a heart attack

in 1979. In 1983 he had another heart

attack and required surgery. It is thought

that blood that he received at this time

was infected with HIV. HIV is the virus

that causes the disease AIDS. As a result

he contracted the disease. However, he

continued to display the same determination

he showed on the tennis court.

He took the side of refugees, underprivileged

children, and people with AIDS.

He died of AIDS on February 6, 1993.

..More to explore

AIDS • Tennis

Ashgabat

Population

(2007 estimate)

744,000

Ashgabat is the capital of the central

Asian country of Turkmenistan. The city

lies at the foot of a mountain range. It is

also at the edge of a desert, in an area

called an oasis. An oasis is a part of a

desert that has enough water for people

to live.

Ashgabat is one of Turkmenistan’s centers

of industry and transportation. The

city is famous for its carpet-weaving

industry. It also has glassworks, cotton

mills, and metalworking shops.

The city was founded in 1881 as a Russian

military fort. It was called Ashkhabad.

During much of the 1900s it was

the capital of a republic of the Soviet

Union. An earthquake destroyed much

of the city in 1948, but it was rebuilt. In

1992 Turkmenistan became an independent

country with Ashkhabad as the

capital. The city then adopted the Turkmen

version of its name—Ashgabat.

..More to explore

Oasis • Turkmenistan

A statue of a horseman stands in

front of a monument in downtown

Ashgabat.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ashgabat 199

Asia

The largest and most populated continent

is Asia. It has nearly one third of

the world’s total land area and is home

to more than half Earth’s people.

Land and Climate

Because Asia is so vast and varied, it is

often discussed in terms of six general

regions: Southwest, South, Southeast,

East, North, and Central Asia. Southwest

Asia consists mainly of countries on

or near the Arabian Peninsula, such as

Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, and Israel.

Most of Turkey is also included in this

group. (Some of Turkey is considered

part of Europe.) The countries of Southwest

Asia are also part of a region known

as the Middle East. Much of the land in

Southwest Asia is desert.

The main geographic features of South,

Southeast, and East Asia are great

mountains, high plains, and islands.

India and Pakistan are major countries

in South Asia; Indonesia, Malaysia,

Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam

are in Southeast Asia; and China, Japan,

and North and South Korea are in East

Asia.

Northern Asia, also called Siberia, is part

of Russia. (Russia’s Ural Mountains

separate Asia and Europe, so Russia is

partly in Asia and partly in Europe.)

Siberia has mostly frozen plains and

swampy forest. Because of the extreme

cold, few people live there. Most of Central

Asia consists of desert, but in the

north are vast grasslands.

200 Asia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asia 201

The continent’s largest deserts are the

Gobi and the Takla Makan Desert in

East Asia and the Thar Desert in South

Asia. Many of the world’s highest peaks

are found in the Himalayas of South

Asia. The continent’s other major

mountain ranges include the Hindu

Kush, the Tian Shan, and the Altai, all

in Central Asia. Major Asian rivers

include the Yangtze and Huang He in

China; the Mekong and Irrawaddy in

Southeast Asia; the Ganges in India; and

the Ob in Russia. Some of the world’s

earliest civilizations developed along the

Indus River in India and the Tigris and

Euphrates rivers in Southwest Asia.

The climate of Asia varies greatly. The

continent has some of the hottest and

coldest places on Earth, as well as many

areas in between. Cherrapunji, India, is

one of the world’s wettest places, averaging

nearly 400 inches (1,000 centimeters)

of rain per year. Southwest Asia has

some of the world’s driest deserts. South

and Southeast Asia are hot, wet regions

with two distinctive seasons: a relatively

cool and dry winter and a rainy and hot

summer.

Plants and Animals

Because of the wide variety of climates

and physical features, there are many

types of plants. In northern Siberia

lichens, mosses, and some wildflowers

grow. To the south are evergreen forests

and grasslands. China has the most varied

vegetation of any country in the

world. Palm trees and bamboo grow in

the southern parts of China, South

Korea, and Japan. In South and Southeast

Asia rain forest is the main natural

vegetation, though large areas of trees

have been cut down to make room for

farming. In the mountains of Southwest

Asia there are forests of beech trees, evergreens,

hollies, and creepers.

Asia’s animals are as varied as its plants.

Northern Asia has polar bears, walruses,

moose, and reindeer, while wild camels

roam the Gobi. Asia’s reptiles include

crocodiles, king cobras, and Komodo

dragons. Animals found only in Asia

include the orangutan, giant panda,

Asian elephant, Siberian tiger, Bengal

tiger, and Indian rhinoceros. However,

the population of many animals in Asia

has been reduced because of the destruction

of animal habitats and uncontrolled

hunting.

The Tian Shan Mountains are a

major feature of Central Asia.

202 Asia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

People

Many different groups of people live in

Asia. Arabs, Jews, Iranians, and Turks

are among the peoples of Southwest

Asia. South Asia is home to Indian

peoples. Southeast Asia’s wide variety of

peoples and cultures has been

influenced by India and China. The

main peoples in East Asia are the

Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans.

Northern Asia includes various Asian

groups, as well as Russians and other

Europeans.

Hundreds of different languages can be

heard throughout the continent. More

than 250 languages are spoken in Indonesia

alone. Some of the most widely

used languages in Asia include Arabic,

which is spoken in parts of Southwest

Asia; Hindi, spoken in India; and Chinese

(Mandarin), spoken in China. Russian,

English, and French are also

spoken.

The world’s major religions—Buddhism,

Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and

Christianity—all started in Asia.Today,

many people in Southeast and East Asia

follow Buddhism.Hinduism is the main

religion in India and Nepal, while Islam

is practiced in much of Southwest Asia

and in Indonesia,Malaysia, Pakistan, and

Bangladesh. Judaism is the main religion

in Israel. Christianity is practiced

throughout the continent, but only in

the Philippines, Russia, and Armenia is it

the main religion.

Hong Kong, Israel, Japan, Singapore,

and South Korea have excellent

education and health care systems. But

most of the rest of Asia is still

developing. The living standards of

many people are behind those in the

Western world. In general, problems

with nutrition are common. Health and

education services are limited and are

generally more available in cities than in

rural areas.

Economy

Agriculture is an important part of the

economy in many Asian countries. In

much of Asia the main food crop is rice.

Wheat is important in parts of Northern,

Central, Southwest, and South Asia.

Crops grown for sale include tea, sugarcane,

coconuts, and rubber. Sheep and

goats are raised for meat and wool in

most of Asia. China, Japan, Indonesia,

India, and Russia catch large amounts of

fish.

Asia has large reserves of almost every

important mineral. The continent has

more than half the world’s reserves of

The religion of Buddhism was founded in

India and soon spread throughout Asia.

The Kiyomizu Temple is one of the most

famous Buddhist temples in Japan.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asia 203

coal, mostly in China, Siberia, and

India. Major deposits of oil are found

in Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, the United

Arab Emirates, and Qatar. Asia also

produces large amounts of iron ore, cast

iron, tin, tungsten, and refined zinc.

Asia’s industrialized areas, including

Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and

Singapore, make a wide variety of

products. China and parts of South and

Southeast Asia began developing their

manufacturing in the late 20th century.

South and Southeast Asia produce

traditional goods such as textiles as well

as technology products such as

computers. Oil and gas are processed in

Southwest and Central Asia.

History

Asia was home to three of the world’s

first civilizations, which developed

written languages and built large cities.

The first such society developed in

Southwest Asia in a region called

Mesopotamia in about 3500–3000 BC.

A civilization developed in the Indus

River valley in what is now Pakistan by

about 2500 BC. Historians believe that

Chinese civilization began in about

2500 BC as well.

Over time these civilizations changed as

they were taken over by other groups.

The Mesopotamian kingdoms became

part of the Greek and Persian worlds. In

the AD 600s Islam was founded in Arabia.

Arab Muslims took over Mesopotamia

and then moved into other parts of

Asia.

The Indus Valley civilization died out

in about 1700 BC. At about this same

time, a people known as Aryans

invaded what is now India. Their

religion eventually evolved into

Hinduism. The Mauryan Empire

united South Asia in about 300 BC,

though others eventually took over

from them. In the late AD 1100s

Muslim rulers took over part of the

region.

Chinese culture dominated East Asia.

China was ruled by a series of dynasties

for thousands of years, from about the

1700s BC to the AD 1900s. The Mongols,

a people from Northern and Central

Asia, ruled much of Asia during the

AD 1200s and 1300s.

To take control of Asia’s vast wealth,

Europeans conquered many Asian countries

and made them into colonies in the

1800s. By the end ofWorldWar II, the

colonies began to seek independence.

India became free of British rule in

1947. France fought to keep control of

its colonies in Southeast Asia but finally

withdrew from the region in 1954. Most

A fisherman casts his net into the Mekong

River in Southeast Asia.

204 Asia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Central Asian countries were part of the

Russian Empire and later the Soviet

Union. They became independent after

the breakup of the Soviet Union in

1991.

China also underwent major changes.

In 1912 the last dynasty came to an

end, and the country became a

republic. China’s government became

Communist after Communists won a

civil war in 1949.

Communists in Korea and Vietnam also

fought for control of those countries.

The KoreanWar, from 1950 to 1953,

resulted in the separation of Korea into

two countries: North Korea and South

Korea. North Korea had a Communist

government, but South Korea did not.

The VietnamWar ended in 1975 with

Vietnam united under a Communist

government.

In 1948 the country of Israel was created

in the Middle East as a homeland for the

Jewish people. Arab countries opposed

the creation of Israel, however, and they

and the Israelis fought a series of wars.

Southwest Asia was the site of several

other conflicts, including the Iran-Iraq

War (1980–88), the Persian GulfWar

(1991), and a U.S.-led invasion of Iraq

(2003).

In the last half of the 1900s, many

Asian countries had to deal with

problems left over from the period of

European rule. The boundaries of the

European colonies did not always

match the natural divisions of peoples,

cultures, and physical regions. When

the colonies gained independence they

kept those boundaries, but there were

often tensions between the people who

had been forced to live together. At the

same time, however, many Asian

countries worked hard to improve their

economies.

..More to explore

Arabian Peninsula • Buddhism

• Christianity • Himalayas • Hinduism

• Indus Valley Civilization • Islam

• Judaism • Mesopotamia • Middle East

• Mongol Empire • Persia • Union of

Soviet Socialist Republics

Facts About

ASIA

Area

17,291,121 sq mi (44,783,797 sq km)

Population

(2008 estimate) 4,056,802,260

Largest Country by Area

Asian portion of Russia: 5,051,400 sq mi

(13,083,065 sq km)

Smallest Country by Area

Maldives: 115 sq mi (298 sq km)

Largest Country by Population

China (2008 estimate) 1,324,681,000

Smallest Country by Population

Maldives (2008 estimate) 386,000

Largest Cities

Beijing, China; Mumbai (Bombay), India;

Seoul, South Korea; Delhi, India; Tokyo,

Japan

Longest River

Yangtze River, China: 3,915 mi (6,300 km)

Largest Lake

Caspian Sea (Asia/Europe): 143,000 sq mi

(370,000 sq km)

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asia 205

Asia Minor

Asia Minor is the place where the continents

of Asia and Europe meet. It is also

known by its Greek name, Anatolia. In

the past Asia Minor was a meeting point

for travelers passing between Asia and

Europe. Today it is part of the country

of Turkey.

Asia Minor is a peninsula, or a piece of

land surrounded by water on three sides.

The Black Sea lies to the north. The

Aegean Sea lies to the west. The Mediterranean

Sea is to the south. The peninsula

extends westward from Asia toward

Europe.

#More to explore

Asia • Europe • Turkey

Asian Americans

Asian Americans are people in the

United States whose ancestors came

from Asia. Many Asian Americans were

born in Asia and later moved, or immigrated,

to the United States. However,

many other Asian Americans were born

in the United States. Their families often

have been in the country for several generations.

Asian Americans have roots in many

different countries. The largest groups of

Asian Americans have ancestors from

China, the Philippines, India, Vietnam,

Korea, or Japan. Many other Asian

Americans have ancestors from Cambodia,

Laos, Pakistan, or Thailand. Smaller

groups of Asian Americans have roots in

many other Asian countries. (A tiny

group has roots in the part of Asia called

the Middle East. However, many of

these people are better known as Arab

Americans.)

Early Asian Immigrants

Asians did not start immigrating to the

United States until the 1800s.Workers

from China began arriving in the United

States in about 1820. A gold rush in

California in the mid-1800s brought

many more Chinese people to theWest

Coast. In the 1860s about 15,000 Chinese

workers helped to build the transcontinental

(cross-country) railroad.

Almost all the early Chinese immigrants

were young men. Many came to earn

money but planned to return to China.

Others decided to stay.

Meanwhile, in the 1850s and 1860s,

people from China and Japan began

arriving in Hawaii. They came mainly to

work on sugar plantations, or large

farms. Thousands more Japanese arrived

in Hawaii during the 1880s. In the early

1900s workers from Korea and the Philippines

also came to work on Hawaii’s

plantations.

People called

the Hittites

lived in Asia

Minor from

about 1700 to

1180 BC. After

that many different

groups

ruled the area.

It became part

of the Republic

of Turkey in

1923.

206 Asia Minor BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

During the late 1800s and early 1900s,

many immigrants from Japan, Korea,

and the Philippines settled on theWest

Coast. Smaller numbers came from

India. Many Asian immigrants worked

on farms in California.

Discrimination

Asian immigrants often faced discrimination,

or unfair treatment, from whites.

In addition, the U.S. government did

not allow them to become U.S. citizens.

This meant that Asian immigrants did

not have the same rights as immigrants

from Europe.

Eventually, the government passed laws

to stop Asians from immigrating to the

United States. In 1882 the U.S. Congress

passed the Chinese Exclusion Act.

This law stopped Chinese people from

immigrating to the United States. The

Immigration Act of 1924 stopped all

immigration from Asia.

Despite this discrimination, many Asian

Americans started families, set up businesses,

and built communities in the

United States. Their children, born in

the United States, became U.S. citizens.

Many Asian Americans served in the

U.S. military.

Japanese Internment

In 1941 Japan bombed the U.S. military

base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The

United States then joinedWorldWar II.

During the war, the U.S. government

saw all Japanese Americans as possible

Chinese New Year festivities attract crowds to the neighborhood called Chinatown in

Chicago, Illinois.

A Japanese American family has their bags

packed for their move to an internment camp.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asian Americans 207

enemies. It distrusted even those who

had been born in the United States and

were citizens.

The government forced Japanese Americans

on theWest Coast to move to special

camps, called internment camps.

These Japanese Americans lived in the

camps until the war ended in 1945.

They lost their jobs and often their land,

homes, and businesses. Even so, thousands

of Japanese Americans—and other

Asian Americans—served in the U.S.

military during the war.

In 1989 Congress apologized to Japanese

Americans for their treatment duringWorldWar

II. The government also

gave 20,000 dollars to each surviving

internee.

New Laws and New

Immigrants

FollowingWorldWar II Congress

passed laws that led to fairer treatment

of Asian Americans. A law called The

Immigration and Nationality Act of

1952 gave all Asian immigrants the right

to become U.S. citizens. The Immigration

Act of 1965 allowed people from

any Asian country to immigrate to the

United States.

After 1965, many new Asian immigrants

came to the United States. Many came

from Korea and countries in Southeast

Asia, especially Vietnam. These immigrants

often were escaping wars in their

homelands. But Asian immigrants also

came to find work. For example, great

numbers of Indians came to work in the

United States as doctors, scientists, engineers,

or computer specialists.

Asian Americans Today

By 2000 there were more than 10 million

Asian Americans in the United

States. They made up about 4 percent of

the U.S. population. About half of them

lived in theWest, especially in Hawaii

and California. In the East, New York

had the highest number of Asian Americans.

More than 65 percent of the Asian

Americans in 2000 were U.S. citizens.

Some Asian Americans today feel that

other Americans still treat them as outsiders.

Nevertheless, many Asian Americans

have achieved high levels of

economic and educational success. Asian

Americans continue to be an important

part of U.S. society, as they have been

for more than 150 years.

#More to explore

Asia • California • Citizenship

• Discrimination • Hawaii • Migration,

Human • United States

Asian American architect and artist Maya

Lin stands beside one of her works. Lin is

famous for designing the Vietnam War

Memorial in Washington, D.C.

Norman Y.

Mineta was

the first Asian

American to

head a U.S.

government

department.

He served as

Secretary of

Commerce

and later as

Secretary of

Transportation.

208 Asian Americans BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Asmara

Population

(2002 estimate)

500,600

Asmara is the capital of the East African

country of Eritrea. It is also the country’s

largest city. Located in a highlands

region, Asmara is more than 7,500 feet

(2,300 meters) above sea level.

Asmara is a major market for farm products.

It is also a center for tanning hides.

Factories in the city make textiles, footwear,

and soft drinks. Roads, railroads,

and airplane routes connect Asmara to a

port on the Red Sea.

Asmara was once a small village of the

Tigre people. In 1900 it became the

capital of the Italian colony of Eritrea.

In 1935 Italy invaded Ethiopia. The

Italians made Asmara the main base for

the attack. Afterward Asmara was the

leading city in the territory called Italian

East Africa. Later the British and then

the Ethiopians controlled Eritrea. In

1993 Eritrea won its independence, and

Asmara became its capital.

#More to explore

Eritrea

Asparagus

People have been eating asparagus as a

vegetable since ancient times. The vegetable

is also called garden asparagus.

This helps to separate it from the hundreds

of other types of asparagus plants.

All asparagus plants belong to the lily

family, along with onions and garlic.

Asparagus grows wild in parts of Europe,

Africa, and Asia. Farmers and gardeners

grow the vegetable in areas where the

winters are cool or cold. The world’s

leading asparagus producers are China,

Peru, and the United States.

People eat the young shoots of the

asparagus plant, which are called spears.

The spears shoot up from the roots during

the spring and early summer. They

must be picked by hand, not by

machine. That makes asparagus an

expensive crop to grow.

The spears of the asparagus plant are

normally green. That is because they

contain chlorophyll, the substance that

uses light energy to make food for

plants. Some growers in France and

other places bury the growing spears in

Tender asparagus spears shoot up from the

ground in spring and early summer.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asparagus 209

soil. This shields them from the sun and

prevents them from making chlorophyll.

Spears grown this way are white. White

asparagus is known for its delicate flavor.

People usually eat asparagus spears

cooked. They are often served hot with

melted butter or a rich sauce. The spears

are also eaten cold in salads.

#More to explore

Garden • Lily • Plant

Aspen

The trees called aspens are known for

their fluttering leaves. Their leaf stalks

are long, weak, and flattened. They

allow the leaves to move in even the

slightest breeze.

Aspens belong to the group of trees

called poplars. The poplars are closely

related to willow trees. There are three

species, or types, of aspen. The European

aspen grows in Europe, northern

Africa, and Asia. The quaking, or trembling,

aspen and the big-tooth aspen are

found in North America.

The bark of aspens is usually smooth

and greenish gray or white. Aspen leaves

are rich green. In autumn the leaves turn

bright yellow before they fall off the tree.

The European aspen and the quaking

aspen can reach a height of 90 feet (27

meters). The big-tooth aspen can grow

to about 59 feet (18 meters).

Aspens can reproduce both by producing

seeds and by growing new sprouts. A

single aspen can produce more than 50

million seeds each season. Aspens also

grow sprouts from their own roots.

These sprouts grow into new trees. Root

reproduction makes it hard to get rid of

aspens. If people cut down a batch of

aspens, new aspen sprouts will shoot up

if the roots still exist.

People use aspens to make paper. They

also value aspens for their shade and

beauty.

#More to explore

Poplar • Tree •Willow

Assassination

The murder of a public figure is called

assassination. Many world leaders have

been killed in this way, mostly for political

reasons. In the 1900s ordinary citizens

and military personnel also became

targets of assassins.

Assassination is an ancient crime. The

Roman ruler Julius Caesar was killed on

March 15, 44 BC, by political enemies.

However, the word assassin was not used

until the Middle Ages. It comes from a

word that means “hashish smokers” and

The quaking aspen grows in more areas of

North America than any other kind of tree.

210 Aspen BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

refers to an Islamic group that existed

between the 1000s and the 1200s.

According to legend, the members of

this group were given the drug hashish

to make them into fearless killers of

their religious rivals.

Assassins strike for various reasons.

Some feel that they were mistreated in

some way. For example, U.S. president

James A. Garfield was killed in 1881 by

a man who was angry that he did not

get a political job. Others disagree with

the victim’s beliefs or with a public

stand that the victim has taken on a

particular issue. The Egyptian leader

Anwar el-Sadat was assassinated by

people who were angry with him for

signing a peace treaty with Israel. The

U.S. civil rights leader Martin Luther

King, Jr., was killed by a man who disagreed

with the cause of civil rights.

Still other assassins want to call attention

to a cause or make a political statement.

U.S. president William McKinley died

after being shot on September 6, 1901.

His killer was an anarchist—a person

who wanted to do away with governments.

Anarchists also killed several

heads of state in Europe in the early

1900s. Some hoped to change the

course of history.

One particular assassination had farreaching

effects. The assassination of

Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-

Hungary in 1914 helped to bring about

WorldWar I.

#More to explore

Caesar, Julius • Garfield, James A.

• King, Martin Luther, Jr. • McKinley,

William • Sadat, Anwar el- •WorldWar I

Assiniboin

The Assiniboin (or Assiniboine) tribe of

Native North Americans were originally

Both Indira Gandhi and her son Rajiv

served as prime ministers of India. Indira

Gandhi was assassinated in 1984. Rajiv

Gandhi became prime minister after her

assassination. Later he was also killed.

An Assiniboin chief wears the traditional

clothing of his tribe.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Assiniboin 211

part of the Yanktonai Dakota (Sioux)

people. In the 1600s, they split from the

Yanktonai and moved west into what are

now the states of Montana and North

Dakota and the Canadian provinces of

Saskatchewan and Manitoba.

The Assiniboin’s name came from an

Ojibwa Indian word meaning “one who

cooks with stones.” This was because

they used stones heated in a fire to boil

cooking water.

The Assiniboin spent much of their time

hunting bison (buffalo). Bison meat was

their main source of food, and they used

bison hides to make their clothing and

shelter.

By the late 1600s, the French and the

English began building trading posts

near the Assiniboin’s territory. The

Europeans brought with them diseases

such as measles and smallpox, which

killed many members of the tribe.

Weakened by disease and warfare, in

1851 the Assiniboin agreed to give up

much of their traditional territory to the

U.S. government in exchange for reservation

lands. The Assiniboin in the

United States eventually settled on two

reservations in Montana. Those in

Canada moved to several reserves in

Alberta and Saskatchewan. By the end of

the 20th century, there were about

5,000 Assiniboin living in the United

States and about 3,000 in Canada.

..More to explore

Native Americans

Astana

Population

(2006 estimate)

550,440

Astana is the capital of the central Asian

country of Kazakhstan. The city lies

along the Ishim River.

Astana is a railway hub. Many of its

people work for the railroads. The city

also has factories that finish metals,

process foods, and make farm

machinery.

The city was founded in 1824 as a Russian

military outpost. It was originally

called Akmolinsk. It has had several

names over the years. For many years it

was the capital of a province in the

Soviet Union. Kazakhstan became an

independent country in 1991. The city

became its capital in 1997. The next

year the city’s name was changed from

Akmola to Astana.

..More to explore

Kazakhstan

Asteroid

Asteroids are small, rocky bodies that

orbit, or travel around, the sun. They

are also called minor planets or

planetoids. In general, they are

materials left over from when the

planets formed. They are also created

The Assiniboin

were friendly

with the Cree.

Their enemies

were the

Blackfoot and

the Dakota

Sioux.

212 Astana BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

when other bodies in space collide and

break apart. Most asteroids travel

around the sun in a loose path that falls

between the orbits of the planets Mars

and Jupiter. Astronomers identified the

first asteroids in 1801.

Asteroids are much smaller than planets.

The largest asteroids are between 62

miles (100 kilometers) and 620 miles

(1,000 kilometers) across. Millions of

asteroids are the size of large boulders.

Asteroids can be almost any shape. Some

are nearly round while others are irregularly

shaped chunks. Asteroids are made

up of stone and metal.

Many small asteroids enter Earth’s

atmosphere each day. Almost all burn up

before they hit the ground. As they burn

they create a streak of light called a

meteor. An asteroid that survives the fall

through the atmosphere and reaches

Earth’s surface is called a meteorite.

#More to explore

Planets

Asthma

Asthma is a long-term medical condition

that affects a person’s lungs. From

time to time people with asthma suffer

attacks, or episodes of sickness, in which

they find it difficult to breathe. People

can get asthma at any age. It is one of

the most common long-term health

problems in children. Asthma in children

usually begins by the age of 5.

Symptoms

The symptoms, or signs, of an asthma

attack include coughing and the feeling

of not getting enough air. Wheezing, or

breathing that makes a whistling sound,

is also common. Asthma attacks usually

last from about 30 minutes to several

hours. The symptoms can range from

mild to serious. In rare cases an asthma

attack can lead to death.

A child uses an inhaler. An

inhaler is a device that quickly

delivers medicine to the lungs of

a person with asthma.

The asteroid called Gaspra is about 12

miles (20 kilometers) long.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Asthma 213

Causes

An asthma attack results from changes

in the small tubes in the lungs that carry

air. During an attack the muscles around

these airways tighten. This makes it

harder for air to pass through. The tubes

also swell up. This leaves less space

inside for the airflow. In addition, the

tubes fill up with extra amounts of a

thick fluid called mucus.

Scientists do not know exactly why

people get asthma. But once people

have the condition, their bodies tend to

overreact to certain things called

triggers. The triggers vary from person

to person. For some it may be

exercising. For others, breathing

polluted air or getting a cold may bring

on an asthma attack. Sudden weather

changes can cause attacks, too.

Asthma attacks are also often associated

with allergies. Allergies are a body’s

negative reactions to certain substances.

Things that cause allergic reactions may

trigger asthma attacks, too. These things

include plant pollen, mold, and tiny

insects that live in house dust.

Treatment

There is no cure for asthma. However,

several medications can help prevent

asthma attacks. Other medicines can

quickly relieve the symptoms of an

attack. People with asthma also try to

avoid the things that trigger their

attacks.

#More to explore

Allergy • Lung • Medicine

Astronomy

Astronomy is one of the oldest sciences

in the world. The study of astronomy

involves all of the objects outside Earth’s

atmosphere. These include the sun,

Moon, planets, stars, galaxies, and all

other matter in the universe. People

known as astronomers have studied

these objects for thousands of years.

Study of Astronomy

Astronomers study the universe in different

ways. Some are professionals,

meaning that they make their living at

the work. Others study objects in space

as a hobby. They are known as amateur

astronomers.

Some astronomers work in laboratories.

There they study actual samples of

objects that have been collected by

spacecraft. These include meteorites,

An astronomer points a telescope toward

the evening sky.

214 Astronomy BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

rock samples from the Moon, and dust

particles.

Many astronomers observe distant

objects with the help of telescopes. Telescopes

range in size. Some are small

enough to be carried by hand. Large

telescopes are often housed in buildings

known as observatories. The Hubble

Space Telescope is in orbit around Earth

as a floating observatory. The Hubble

magnifies and records images of distant

space objects. It then sends the information

to astronomers on Earth.

Astronomers also use cameras and other

instruments to record information about

distant objects. Photographs provide

astronomers with a visual record of their

observations. Other instruments can

help reveal faint, hard-to-detect objects

in outer space. These instruments measure

the light and other radiation coming

from the objects.

Some Early Astronomers

Thousands of years ago there were no

calendars or clocks. People kept track of

time by watching the sun and the stars.

It was important for them to know the

time in order to sow their crops and reap

their harvests. These people were the

first astronomers.

The most influential ancient astronomer

was Ptolemy of Alexandria in Egypt. He

lived in the AD 100s. He developed the

idea that Earth occupies the center of

the universe. He thought that the other

objects revolved around Earth. Most

people believed this idea of Ptolemy’s

for more than a thousand years.

In 1543Nicolaus Copernicus published a

revolutionary new theory.He believed

that Earth and the other planets revolve

around the sun. Copernicus was criticized

because he challenged Ptolemy’s theory.

Galileo Galilei, a great Italian scientist

and astronomer, supported Copernicus’

theory with his observations.

Later astronomers made new discoveries

that also supported Copernicus’ idea. In

the early 1600s Johannes Kepler

explained how the planets travel around

the sun. In 1687 Isaac Newton learned

about gravitation and motion. His work

reinforced Kepler’s laws. Today astrono-

Astronomers study everything

they can see or detect in the sky.

Some astronomers study the

oddly shaped clouds of gas and

dust called nebulas.

Chinese

astronomers

noticed an

explosion in

the sky on July

4, 1054. This

was a supernova,

or the

explosion of a

star. Its

remains can

be seen today

in the Crab

Nebula.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Astronomy 215

mers know that Copernicus was correct.

But there are still many questions about

the universe. Astronomers continue to

try to answer those questions.

..More to explore

Solar System • Telescope • Universe

Asuncion

Population

(2006

estimate), city,

519,361;

(2007

estimate), urban

area,

1,870,000

Asuncion is the capital of Paraguay, a

country in South America. It is Paraguay’s

largest city. Asuncion is located

on the Paraguay River. From the city’s

port, ships can travel to the Atlantic

Ocean.

Asuncion processes and ships much of

the food grown throughout Paraguay.

Factories in the city also process cotton

and make cloth, shoes, and tobacco

products. The government employs

many people in Asuncion. Others work

in service industries such as health care,

tourism, and trade.

The Guarani Indians moved into the

area hundreds of years ago. In the 1500s

people from Spain settled among the

Guarani and created a colony. The Spanish

named the city Asuncion in 1537.

Paraguay became independent from

Spain in 1811. Asuncion then became

Paraguay’s capital. During a war in the

late 1800s Brazil took control of Asuncion.

But the city was returned to Paraguay

about 10 years later.

..More to explore

Paraguay

Athapaskan

The Athapaskan (or Athabascan) were a

large group of Native American tribes

who spoke similar languages. They traditionally

lived in northwestern North

The presidential palace in Asuncion is

brightly lit at night.

An Athapaskan child shows his drawings of

reindeer.

216 Asuncion BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

America. Before 1400 some Athapaskans,

including the Navajo and the

Apache, moved to what is now the

southwestern United States. Others

migrated to the Great Plains or the

Pacific coast. Today the name Athapaskan

is usually used for tribes who stayed

in northern Canada and Alaska. They

include the Chipewyan, the Han, and

the Kutchin.

The Athapaskan lived in forests in areas

with long, snowy winters. They fished

and hunted for animals such as deer,

moose, rabbits, and squirrels. They

prized the reindeer for its skin and fur as

well as its meat. The Athapaskan also

gathered plants.

Living in such a cold environment, the

Athapaskan spent most of the year in a

constant search for food. They traveled

in small family groups. While hunting

they lived in portable, cone-shaped

dwellings that resembled the tepees

made by Plains Indians. They used

dogsleds to carry their belongings over

snow and ice.

For many years only a few French,

English, and Russian fur traders entered

Athapaskan lands. In the late 1800s

many more people arrived in search of

gold. The newcomers brought change,

but traditional ways survived. In the late

20th century more than 40,000 Athapaskan

lived in Alaska and northern

Canada, where they are called Dene.

#More to explore

Apache • Chipewyan • Native

Americans • Navajo • Plains Indians

Athena

In ancient Greek mythology Athena was

the goddess of war, wisdom, and handicrafts.

She was one of the 12 gods

believed to live on Mount Olympus. She

is associated with the Roman goddess

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Athena 217

Minerva because they shared many of

the same characteristics. Athena’s symbols

were the olive tree, which represents

peace, and the owl, which represents

wisdom.

According to legend, Athena was the

favorite daughter of Zeus, the chief god.

She was said to have sprung from his

head fully grown and clothed in a suit of

armor. Like Zeus, Athena wore the aegis,

which was a magical breastplate fringed

with snakes. It produced thunderbolts

when shaken.

Athena was very different from the war

god Ares, who was a powerful fighter.

Athena used her great wisdom to advise

soldiers during wartime. She believed

that war should be used only to protect

people and to provide justice. In addition,

she was known for inventing the

plow, taming wild horses, and teaching

farmers to yoke oxen. It was also

believed that she invented the flute and

the trumpet.

The city of Athens was associated with

Athena. According to legend, Zeus

decided to give the Greek city to the god

who offered the most useful gift to the

people. Poseidon, the god of the sea,

gave the city a water spring. Athena

struck the ground with her spear and

caused an olive tree to grow. The people

were delighted with this gift. Zeus

awarded the city to Athena. He named it

Athens in her honor.

#More to explore

Ares • Athens • Greece, Ancient

• Mythology • Zeus

Athens

Population

(2001 census),

city, 745,514;

metropolitan

area,

3,187,734

Athens is the capital of Greece, a country

of southern Europe. The city is

located on the Greek mainland. Mountains

surround Athens on three sides.

Athens was the most important of the

city-states of ancient Greece.

Places of Interest

Parts of many ancient buildings still

stand in Athens. On top of a high hill is

an ancient fortress known as the

Acropolis. It once held temples to Athena,

the ancient Greek goddess of wisdom.

The city of Athens was named for

Athena.

Ruins of ancient monuments stand near

modern neighborhoods in the city of Athens,

Greece.

218 Athens BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Economy

Athens is the main center in Greece for

business, trade, and transportation. The

city has a busy port on a bay of the

Aegean Sea. Most of Greece’s manufactured

goods are made in Athens. Some

of the main factories process food and

beverages. Other factories make cloth,

soap, chemicals, pottery, ships, and cars.

Tourism and publishing also are major

industries.

History

People have lived in the Athens area for

at least 5,000 years. The earliest surviving

buildings date from about 1200 BC.

Ancient Greece was made up of many

independent city-states. Athens reached

its peak as one of the most powerful

city-states in the 400s BC. The leader of

Athens during that period was Pericles.

He helped develop the form of government

known as democracy. Athens also

thrived in the 400s BC as a center of

culture and learning. The city was home

to great playwrights, historians, and

scholars.

After Athens lost a war in 404 BC, its

power began to decline. Later the Macedonians

and then the Romans controlled

the city.

The Turkish Ottoman Empire took control

of Athens in AD 1456. The Turks

ruled the city until 1833. In that year

Greece became an independent country,

with Athens as its capital. In the second

half of the 1900s the city grew rapidly.

In 2004 Athens hosted the Summer

Olympics.

..More to explore

Acropolis • Athena • City-State • Greece

• Greece, Ancient

Athletics

..see Track and Field.

Atlanta

Population

(2000 census),

city, 416,474;

(2007 estimate)

519,145

Atlanta is the capital and largest city of

the U.S. state of Georgia. It is located

in the foothills of the Blue Ridge

Mountains.

The Fountain of Rings is part of Atlanta’s

Centennial Olympic Park. The park was

built for use during the 1996 Summer

Olympic Games.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Atlanta 219

Atlanta is the main trade and transportation

center for the southeastern United

States. The city is also an important

financial center. The U.S. government

has several offices in Atlanta.

The city had its beginnings in 1837.

That year the site was selected as the end

stop on a new rail line. A settlement

soon grew up around the site. In 1845 it

was named Atlanta.

During the American CivilWar Atlanta

became a rail center for the Confederate

states. In 1864 Union troops captured

Atlanta and burned most of its buildings.

After the war ended, Atlanta recovered

quickly. The city became the capital

of Georgia in 1868.

In the 1900s Atlanta was the home of

the civil rights leader Martin Luther

King, Jr. It was also the first major

Southern city to elect an African American

man (in 1973) and African American

woman (in 2001) as mayor. The

1996 Summer Olympics were held in

Atlanta.

Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest

ocean on Earth, after the Pacific Ocean.

However, the Atlantic drains more of

the world’s land area than any other

ocean. This means that much of the

world’s river water flows into the Atlantic.

The ancient Greeks named the ocean

after Atlas, a character in Greek mythology.

Atlas stood on pillars in the ocean

to hold up the heavens.

Physical Features

The Atlantic Ocean reaches the continents

of Europe and Africa to the east. It

extends to North America and South

America to the west. It also extends from

the Arctic Ocean in the north to Antarctica

in the south. The equator divides

the Atlantic Ocean into parts called the

North Atlantic and the South Atlantic.

The surface area of the Atlantic is about

31,830,000 square miles (82,440,000

square kilometers). This is roughly half

the size of the Pacific Ocean. The Atlantic’s

deepest point, at 27,493 feet (8,380

meters), is the bottom of the Puerto

Rico Trench, north of the island of

Puerto Rico.

Beneath the middle of the Atlantic is a

long, undersea mountain range called

the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Along the ridge,

hot, liquid rock, called magma, rises

from beneath Earth’s crust. The magma

The Jimmy

Carter Library

and Museum

opened in

Atlanta, Georgia,

in 1986.

It houses the

official documents

as well

as letters and

photographs

of the 39th

president of the

United States.

220 Atlantic Ocean BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

cools and hardens as it spreads out on

both sides of the ridge. Volcanoes and

earthquakes are common near the ridge.

Undersea volcanoes have formed some

of the Atlantic’s islands. Examples

include the Cape Verde Islands, near

Africa, and Bermuda, near North

America. Iceland is a volcanic island that

rises from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

Other Atlantic islands are parts of the

same land as nearby continents.

Examples include the islands of Great

Britain, near Europe, and the Falkland

Islands, near South America.

Currents and Climate

The waters of the ocean move in patterns

called currents. Currents carry heat

and affect climate. In general, the main

currents of the Atlantic Ocean move in a

clockwise direction in the northern part

of the ocean. In the southern part they

move in a counterclockwise direction. At

the equator, the currents move from east

to west. There the water picks up heat.

The water then slowly cools as the currents

move away from the equator.

Large, circular storms called hurricanes

often develop in the warm parts of the

Atlantic. Hurricanes usually hit coastal

areas in the Caribbean Sea and southeastern

North America.

Economy

The Atlantic produces much of the

world’s fish. The ocean is also a source

of many minerals. Large deposits of oil,

natural gas, and coal are found in the

Atlantic. In addition, many cargo ships

use the ocean as a trade route.

Exploration

The ancient Egyptians, Celts (Europeans),

Phoenicians (Middle Easterners),

and Romans sailed on the Atlantic. No

one knows how far west they went, however.

In about AD 1000 Vikings from

northern Europe crossed the Atlantic.

They probably reached the island of

Newfoundland, off the coast of North

America.

In 1492 Christopher Columbus made

his famous voyage across the Atlantic in

search of a new trading route to Asia. In

1520 Ferdinand Magellan sailed around

South America. He discovered the strait

(passage), now named after him, that

links the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

Environmental Issues

Humans have heavily polluted some

areas of the Atlantic Ocean. This pollution

includes sewage from cities, waste

from factories, and fertilizers and pesticides

from farms. Oil spills from ships or

offshore oil wells are sources of pollution,

too.

A hurricane swirls off the eastern coast of

the United States. Hurricanes often form

over the warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Atlantic Ocean 221

Overfishing is another important environmental

issue in the Atlantic. So many

fish have been caught that some types

are in danger of disappearing entirely.

Some countries have set limits on how

many fish can be caught in certain areas.

They have also set up programs to protect

the fish that are left and to rebuild

the fish populations.

#More to explore

Ocean • Pacific Ocean

Atlas

In ancient Greek mythology Atlas was

doomed to carry the heavens on his

shoulders. In some stories, he had to

support the pillars that separate heaven

and Earth. Artists often pictured him

carrying the heavens or a globe.

Atlas’ mother was Clymene, a minor

goddess known as a nymph. His father

was Iapetus, a Titan. The Titans were

giants who ruled the world. Atlas fought

with the Titans in a war against Zeus.

When Zeus won the war, he became

chief god. Zeus punished Atlas by making

him hold up the sky.

Another story told that Atlas was the

father of nymphs called the Hesperides.

They guarded a tree that bore golden

apples. The hero Heracles (Hercules)

had to perform 12 tasks to make up for

killing his children. One of these tasks

was to steal the golden apples. Heracles

asked Atlas to help. He offered to carry

the heavens for Atlas while Atlas got the

apples. Atlas agreed and fetched the

apples. He planned to refuse to take

back the heavens. But Heracles tricked

Atlas into picking up his burden again.

In another story Perseus turned Atlas into

a mountain by showing him the head

of the monsterMedusa. The Atlas

Mountains of Africa were named for him.

#More to explore

Greece, Ancient • Heracles • Mythology

• Titans • Zeus

222 Atlas BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Atlas

An atlas is a bound collection of maps.

Atlases vary in size and in the information

presented. Some travelers carry

small atlases that give road and street

directions. Other atlases are huge, very

detailed books that need a reading stand

for support. A general reference atlas

focuses on place locations. A specialsubject

atlas deals with a single subject,

such as agriculture or climate.

In Greek mythology Atlas was a giant

condemned to hold up the heavens. In

the 1500s a man named Gerardus Mercator

put together a collection of maps.

His collection included a picture of Atlas

holding a globe on his shoulders. From

then on, the word atlas was commonly

used to describe a collection of maps.

#More to explore

Map and Globe

Atmosphere

The atmosphere is the layer of gas that

surrounds Earth. It is often called air.

Other planets, and some of their larger

moons, also have atmospheres.

Earth’s atmosphere consists of several

different gases. The gases are held close

to Earth by a force called gravity. Near

Earth’s surface, the atmosphere is about

three fourths nitrogen and one fifth oxygen.

At higher elevations, the atmosphere

is mostly hydrogen and helium.

Surprisingly, air has weight. It is heaviest

at sea level. There the gas particles are

pressed together by the weight of the air

above them. Air becomes lighter away

from Earth’s surface.

Scientists divide the atmosphere into

five regions, or layers. The layer closest

to Earth is the troposphere. It extends

up to about 6 miles (10 kilometers)

above Earth’s surface. Most of Earth’s

weather, including the wind and most

clouds, exists in the troposphere.

The second layer, the stratosphere,

extends to about 30 miles (50 kilometers)

above Earth’s surface. The stratosphere

includes the ozone layer. Ozone

blocks much of the sun’s radiation that

would harm plants and animals if it

reached Earth.

The third layer is the mesosphere. It

extends up to about 50 miles (80 kilometers)

above Earth’s surface.

The fourth layer, the thermosphere,

ranges from about 50 to 300 miles (80

to 480 kilometers) above Earth.

The fifth and highest layer of the atmosphere

is the exosphere. This layer ends

An atlas can teach children about the world.

The atmosphere

protects

Earth’s

surface from

being hit by

objects from

outer space.

These objects

are called

meteoroids.

Most burn up

as they enter

the atmosphere.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Atmosphere 223

where Earth’s gravity is too weak to prevent

particles of gas from drifting into

space.

Atom

The tiny particles called atoms are the

basic building blocks of all matter.

Atoms can be combined with other

atoms to form molecules, but they cannot

be divided into smaller parts by

ordinary means.

The word atom comes from the Greek

word atomos, meaning “indivisible.” The

ancient Greeks were the first to think of

the atom as the basic unit of all matter.

It was not until the early 1800s, though,

that scientists began to understand how

atoms work.

Structure

Each individual atom is made up of

smaller particles—electrons, protons,

and neutrons. These are called

subatomic particles. At the center of an

atom is a nucleus. The nucleus consists

of protons and neutrons. Protons carry

a positive electrical charge, while

neutrons carry no electrical charge.

Together, protons and neutrons are

called nucleons. Surrounding the

nucleus is a cloud of negatively charged

electrons.

Scientists believe that subatomic

particles—protons, neutrons, and

electrons—are themselves made up of

smaller substances. The substances are

called quarks and leptons.

224 Atom BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Properties

The single most important thing to

know about an atom is how many protons

it has in its nucleus. This is known

as its atomic number. The atomic number

determines what kind of atom it is.

Every atom is associated with a specific

chemical element. An atom is the smallest

unit of an element, and each chemical

element has a unique atomic

number. For instance, hydrogen has an

atomic number of 1 because every

hydrogen atom has one proton in its

nucleus. No other element has an

atomic number of 1.

Another property of atoms is their

atomic weight. This is roughly equal to

the total number of protons and neutrons

in an atom. Atoms that have the

same atomic number but different

atomic weights are called isotopes.

Carbon-12, the ordinary form of carbon,

has six protons and six neutrons

per atom. Carbon-14 is an isotope with

eight neutrons per atom. It still has six

protons. If it did not have six protons, it

would not be carbon.

An ordinary atom has an equal number

of protons and electrons. This means that

the positive and negative charges are

balanced. Some atoms, however, lose or

gain electrons in chemical reactions or in

collisions with other particles.Ordinary

atoms that gain or lose electrons are called

ions. If a neutral atom loses an electron, it

becomes a positive ion. If it gains an

electron, it becomes a negative ion.

#More to explore

Chemical Element • Chemistry • Matter

• Molecule

Atsina

#see Gros Ventre.

Attucks, Crispus

An event called the Boston Massacre

helped to turn American colonists

All atoms have the same basic parts. These

are a nucleus and at least one particle

called an electron. The nucleus contains

protons and neutrons. Diagrams of two

kinds of atoms show that each kind of atom

has a different number of electrons.

One proton is

about as

heavy as

2,000 electrons.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Attucks, Crispus 225

against British rule, leading to the

American Revolution. Crispus Attucks

was killed by British soldiers during the

massacre, and many consider him to be

the first person to lose his life in the

struggle for independence.

Crispus Attucks was of African and

Native American ancestry. He was born

in about 1723 and probably grew up in

a Natick Indian settlement. He may

have escaped from slavery in 1750. Most

likely he became a sailor on whaling

ships.

By 1770 many people in Boston, Massachusetts,

were unhappy with British

rule. When a crowd gathered on March

5 to challenge British troops, Attucks

quickly came to the front of the group.

As the Americans waved their weapons

and shouted, the British opened fire.

Attucks was shot twice. He was the first

to die, but four others were also killed

and six were injured.

Attucks was immediately recognized as

a hero. It is said that 10,000 people

joined his funeral procession. In 1888

Attucks was honored with a monument

in Boston.

..More to explore

American Revolution • Boston

Augusta

Population

(2000 census)

18,560; (2007

estimate)

18,367

Augusta is the capital of the U.S. state of

Maine. The city lies along both banks of

the Kennebec River. Ships travel on the

Crispus Attucks

Buildings of Augusta, Maine, look out onto

the Kennebec River.

226 Augusta BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

river from Augusta to the Atlantic

Ocean, about 40 miles (65 kilometers)

away.

Some of Augusta’s factories process foods.

Others make paper products, computer

products, steel, and shoes.Many people

in Augusta work for the state government

or in education or tourism.

Traders first came to the area in the

1600s. They established a trading post

on the site because of its location on the

river. In 1754 a company built Fort

Western to protect the site from Indian

attacks. A village soon grew up around

the fort. In 1797 the village was named

Augusta. Augusta was chosen as the

capital of Maine in 1827.

#More to explore

Maine

Augustus

The first emperor of Rome was Augustus.

During his long reign the Roman

world entered an era of wealth, peace,

and cultural achievement that became

known as the Augustan Age.

Augustus was born on September 23, 63

BC. His original name was Gaius

Octavius. He was related to Julius Caesar,

the Roman leader who was murdered

in 44 BC. After Caesar’s death he

found out that Caesar had chosen him

to be the next leader. From then on he

was called Octavian.

Other leaders challenged Octavian for

power. He finally defeated the last of

these—Mark Antony—in 31 BC.

According to historians, Octavian’s victory

over Antony marked the beginning

of the Roman Empire. Octavian then

controlled the whole Roman world. In

27 BC the Senate gave him the title

Augustus (the exalted or sacred one).

Augustus’ armies conquered more territory

for the Roman Empire until the

Germans stopped them in AD 9. Augustus

then focused on improving Rome.

He founded cities, built roads, encouraged

agriculture, and promoted the arts.

Augustus died on August 19, AD 14.

Tiberius, his adopted son, then took

over as emperor.

#More to explore

Caesar, Julius • Rome, Ancient

Aurora

Auroras are dazzling displays of colored

light that sometimes appear in the night

sky. They occur in Earth’s far northern

and far southern regions. In the Northern

Hemisphere such a display is known

as aurora borealis, or the northern lights.

An aurora lights up the sky over Churchill,

Manitoba, a city in northern Canada.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Aurora 227

In the Southern Hemisphere it is called

aurora australis, or the southern lights.

Auroras take many shapes and forms,

with arcs and rays of colored light being

the most common. The light may also

look like shimmering curtains, bands,

waves, or clouds. An aurora constantly

changes shape as the light moves across

the sky. The light also may brighten and

fade.

Auroras are caused by the sun. The sun

sends out a stream of electrically charged

particles called the solar wind. The solar

wind travels from the sun toward Earth

at great speed.

Earth is a huge magnet surrounded by a

magnetic field. Earth’s magnetic field

forces the charged particles in the solar

wind toward the planet’s northern and

southern polar regions. The particles

move downward through Earth’s upper

atmosphere. As they do, they crash into

atoms and molecules of gases such as

oxygen and nitrogen. These collisions

cause the atoms and molecules to give

off light. This light is an aurora.

An aurora’s colors are determined by the

different gases that give off the light.

They also depend on the height of the

gases. An aurora usually begins as white

light. Then the light turns yellowish

green. This color is produced by oxygen.

Higher up, oxygen gives off red light.

Nitrogen produces blue or violet light.

..More to explore

Atmosphere • Light • Sun

Austin

Population

(2000 census),

city, 656,562;

(2007 estimate)

743,074

Austin is the capital of the U.S. state of

Texas. The city is located on the Colorado

River.

Companies that make computers and

other high-technology products are

important to Austin’s economy. Other

companies in Austin provide business

services. Many city residents work in

government offices or in health care or

education.

Austin began as the village ofWaterloo

in the 1830s. In 1839 the village became

the capital of the Republic of Texas. It

was then renamed in honor of Stephen

Austin, who started early settlements in

Texas. In 1845 Texas became a U.S.

state, with Austin as its capital.

The first railroad service to Austin began

in 1871. That helped the city grow as a

trading center for ranchers and farmers.

In the early 1900s people started building

factories in Austin. Later many hightechnology

industries moved to the city.

As a result, the city’s population grew

rapidly.

..More to explore

Texas

Auroras are

named after

Aurora, the

ancient Roman

goddess of the

dawn.

228 Austin BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Australia

Australia is the only country that takes

up a whole continent. It is known for its

vast Outback, the Great Barrier Reef,

and its unique wildlife. The capital of

Australia is Canberra.

Geography

Australia is one of the largest countries

in the world, but it is also the smallest

continent. Located south of Asia,

Australia lies between the Indian Ocean

and the Pacific Ocean. Off the

southeastern coast is the island of

Tasmania. It has more than 4,000 lakes.

Along Australia’s northeastern coast is

the world’s largest coral reef, the Great

Barrier Reef.

The western half of the continent is a

plateau with several deserts, including

the Great Victoria Desert. East of the

plateau is a lowland area that rises to the

Great Dividing Range, a range of mountains

on the east coast. In the southeast

are the Australian Alps. There, Mount

Kosciusko, Australia’s tallest mountain,

stands 7,310 feet (2,228 meters) high.

The Darling and Murray rivers also run

through the southeast.

Australia is very dry. Most areas have hot

summers and mild winters. Because

Australia is in the Southern Hemisphere,

summer starts in December, and winter

starts in June.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Australia 229

Plants and Animals

Australia’s plants vary from region to

region. The rain forests of the northeast

include flowering plants, palms, and

laurels.Woodlands and forests cover

eastern Australia. Eucalyptus trees are

common in the highlands of the south

and at the edges of the deserts. Desert

shrubs and grasses grow in dry areas.

The country is home to many unique

animals, including emus (large flightless

birds), dingoes (wild dogs), and platypuses

(egg-laying mammals). Many of

the world’s marsupials live in

Australia—for example, kangaroos,

koalas, and wallabies. Crocodiles, lizards,

snakes, turtles, and parrots also live

there.

People

More than 90 percent of Australians

have European roots. Australia welcomed

many immigrants, or people

from other countries, over the years.

However, entry tests were set up to make

it very hard for nonwhites to settle there.

This changed in 1973. Since then, many

Asians have immigrated to the continent.

Aborigines, the native people of

Australia, make up a small percentage of

the population.

Almost 70 percent of Australians are

Christians. There are also small groups

of Buddhists and Muslims. Many people

do not follow any religion.

Few people live in the central region,

called the Outback or “bush.” About 85

percent of all Australians live in cities,

mostly along the coasts. The official

language is English.

Economy

Australia is a prosperous country. Most

people work in trade, businesses that

serve the public, and manufacturing.

Manufacturers make food, print, and

metal products; chemicals; and

machinery.

Australia’s rich natural resources include

oil, coal, and natural gas. Mines provide

Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park is located in

Australia’s Northern Territory. The area is

sacred to Australian Aborigines.

A bridge crosses the Yarra River in Melbourne.

The city is Australia’s second largest,

after Sydney.

230 Australia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

iron, bauxite, copper, opals, and

sapphires.

Agriculture and fishing are small parts of

Australia’s economy. Still, Australia is

one of the world’s largest producers of

wool. The wool comes from more than

100 million Australian sheep. Farmers

grow wheat, vegetables, fruits, nuts, cotton,

and other crops.

History

Aborigines lived in Australia for at least

40,000 years before Europeans arrived.

They came from Asia by boat or by land

that is now underwater.

European Explorers

Portuguese and Spanish explorers may

have landed in Australia in the 1500s. In

the 1600s several Dutch explorers

reached the continent. They included

Dirck Hartog and Abel Tasman. Hartog

discovered the west coast, and Tasman

sailed along the southern tip of what is

now called Tasmania. Because of all

these voyages the Dutch named the continent

New Holland in 1644. But they

did not settle there.

William Dampier, an English pirate

turned explorer, landed on the west

coast twice in the late 1600s. In 1770

Captain James Cook landed in southeastern

Australia and claimed it for

Great Britain. He named the region

New SouthWales.

First Fleet and Settlement

Captain Cook thought that New South

Wales was a good place for settlement.

At the time, England’s prisons were

overcrowded. So the English government

decided to send prisoners to Australia

to start a penal colony—a place

where criminals are sent to live.

Captain Arthur Phillip was in charge of

the First Fleet. He led 11 ships carrying

about 200 marines, a few free settlers,

1644 1770 1788 1851 1901 1992 2000

Dutch explorers

name the

continent New

Holland.

James Cook

claims

Australia for

Great Britain.

Britain sets up

the first colony

in Australia.

A gold rush

brings many

settlers to

Australia.

Australia

separates from

Britain.

Aborigines

win the right

to claim their

traditional

lands.

Sydney hosts

the Summer

Olympic

Games.

T I M E L I N E

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Australia 231

more than 700 convicts, food stores, and

farm animals. The trip took eight

months and conditions were very hard.

They reached Australia in January 1788

and settled in a bay that they named

Sydney Cove. Phillip became the first

governor of the colony.

Convicts and settlers worked to clear

land and to establish farms. They were

not used to the climate, which was

different from England’s, so the

colonists struggled to survive. But soon

more convicts and settlers arrived. The

settlement grew bigger and stronger.

In the 1800s other parts of the country

were settled. Some were also penal colonies.

In 1851 the discovery of gold drew

thousands of new immigrants to Australia.

The settlements grew and became

colonies separate from New South

Wales. They became Tasmania,Western

Australia, Victoria, Queensland, and

South Australia.

The flood of settlers nearly wiped out

the aboriginal population. Many

Aborigines died while fighting for their

land or from diseases brought by the

Europeans.

Independence andWar

By the late 1800s the six separate colonies

each had an elected parliament, or

group of lawmakers. In 1901 they

became states when they joined together

to form a federation. The new Commonwealth

of Australia had a national

parliament and six state parliaments. It

kept ties with Britain, however, as part

of the British Commonwealth (a group

of former British colonies).

WhenWorldWar I began, Australians

fought alongside the British Army.

Many Australians died during the battle

of Gallipoli in 1915. Australia also supported

Britain whenWorldWar II

began in 1939. In the 1940s the Japanese

attacked several Australian cities.

Their airplanes bombed Darwin, and

submarines fired on Sydney. After the

war Australia’s population grew rapidly.

Many immigrants came from war-torn

Europe.

Recent Events

In the 1970s Australia started to focus

less on Europe and more on its Asian

neighbors. Many Asian immigrants

arrived, and trade increased between

Australia and Asian countries.

In the 1990s Aborigines won some

rights to land. They also won more

respect from white Australians. Many

still face hardships, however.

The British monarch is still the head of

state in Australia. Some Australians have

called for change. They want the country

to become a republic with a president

as head of state. In 1999, however,

Australians voted against a complete

separation from Britain.

..More to explore

Aboriginal Peoples • Canberra • Cook,

James • Eucalyptus • Great Barrier Reef

• Great Victoria Desert • Marsupial

• Parliament • Platypus • Tasmania

Facts About

AUSTRALIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

21,338,000

Area

2,969,978 sq mi

(7,692,208 sq

km)

Capital

Canberra

Form of

government

Federal parliamentary

state

Metropolitan

areas

Sydney, Melbourne,

Brisbane,

Perth, Adelaide

232 Australia BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Austria

Located in central Europe, Austria is a

small, mountainous country. The capital

of Austria is Vienna.

Geography

Austria is bordered by Switzerland,

Liechtenstein, Germany, the Czech

Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Italy, and

Slovenia. Some of the highest

mountains of the Alps are in central

and western Austria. Grossglockner, the

highest peak, is 12,460 feet (3,798

meters) tall.

The major lowland areas lie in northern

and eastern Austria. The northern lowland

is the valley of the Danube River.

Many other rivers, including the Enns,

Inn, and Drava, flow through the valleys

of the Alps. They form several passes

through the mountains. Brenner Pass is

the most important pass. It connects

Austria with Italy.

Western Austria gets more rain and

snow than eastern Austria. The east also

has a greater range of temperatures. In

some mountainous regions there is snow

all year.

Plants and Animals

Austria is the most densely forested

country in central Europe. Beech, birch,

and oak trees grow in the warmer zones.

Firs, larches, and pines grow in the hills

and mountains.

Wild animals include brown bears, deer,

hare, foxes, badgers, eagles, falcons,

owls, cranes, swans, storks, and turkey

vultures. In Austrian rivers live trout,

grayling, pike, perch, and carp.

People

German is the official language of Austria.

More than 90 percent of the people

are Austrian. Small minority groups

include Slavs, Turks, and Hungarians.

Most of Austria’s mountains are part of a

large mountain chain called the Alps.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Austria 233

Most Austrians are Roman Catholic.

About two thirds of Austrians live in

cities and towns. Vienna is the largest

city.

Economy

Services, or businesses that serve the

public, and manufacturing are the most

important parts of Austria’s economy.

Tourism and banking are major areas of

the service industry. Tourists come for

Austria’s famous skiing resorts, cultural

events, and scenic beauty. Manufacturers

make machinery, food products, metals,

and chemicals.

Austria’s natural resources include lignite

(brown coal), iron ore, petroleum

(oil), natural gas, and magnesite (used to

make magnesium). Austria is one of the

world’s leading producers of natural

magnesite.

Austria uses less than half its land for

farming and grazing. The major crops

are sugar beets, corn, wheat, barley,

potatoes, apples, grapes, and rye. Pigs,

cattle, and chickens are the main livestock.

History

Romans, Germans, Slavs, Hungarians,

and others have invaded Austria during

its long history. A German family called

the Hapsburgs ruled Austria and other

parts of Europe from 1282 until 1918.

In the 1800s the Hapsburgs joined with

Hungary to form an empire called

Austria-Hungary, which controlled

much of central and eastern Europe.

After the collapse of the empire in 1918,

the country was reduced to one eighth

of its original size.

German leader Adolf Hitler invaded

Austria and made it a part of Nazi Germany

in 1938. Austria was divided into

four zones in 1945, after Germany’s

defeat inWorldWar II. The United

States, Great Britain, France, and the

Soviet Union each occupied one of the

zones. Austria’s government had limited

powers.

In 1955 Austria gained independence

after its leaders promised to keep neutral,

or stay out of foreign affairs. The

country became stable, both politically

and economically, in the 1970s. In the

1990s, however, some politicians began

to blame immigrants for crime and economic

problems. Others opposed these

views.

..More to explore

Alps, The • Germany • Hapsburgs

• Vienna •WorldWar II

A street in the Austrian city of Salzburg is

lined with shops and cafes.

Facts About

AUSTRIA

Population

(2008 estimate)

8,338,000

Area

32,383 sq mi

(83,871 sq km)

Capital

Vienna

Form of

government

Federal republic

Major cities

Vienna, Graz,

Linz, Salzburg,

Innsbruck,

Klagenfurt

234 Austria BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The air-fuel mixture that enters the

engine cannot ignite by itself. It needs

an electric spark. This comes from

devices called spark plugs. They get their

electric current from a battery. The battery

also powers the automobile’s lights,

horn, turn signals, windshield wipers,

starter, and instruments such as the

gasoline gauge.

An exhaust system carries burned gases

from the engine to the muffler. The

muffler cools the gases. It also reduces

their pressure. This reduces the noise

coming from the tailpipe. Modern cars

are also equipped with a device called a

catalytic converter. The catalytic converter

uses chemicals to reduce exhaust

pollution.

Power Train

The engine provides power to make a

car go, but something else must turn the

wheels. The parts of the car that transmit,

or deliver, power from the engine to

the wheels are together called the power

train. When a car is starting or moving

uphill the engine must deliver more

power than when it is cruising on level

ground. The transmission uses gears to

reduce or increase the speed and power

of the engine. The drive shaft carries the

power from the transmission to the axle,

which connects the wheels.

Other Mechanical Parts

Once a car is moving it is important to

be able to make it stop. When a driver

presses the brake pedal, pistons force

fluid through small, flexible pipes to

brakes at each wheel that stop the

vehicle.

The wheels of an automobile are part of

a system called the suspension system.

This consists of springs that absorb

bumps and shock absorbers that cushion

the spring movement. The air-filled tires

of an automobile also cushion the ride.

History

The first true automobile was a machine

that had three wheels and was powered

by steam. It was built by Nicolas-Joseph

Cugnot of France in 1769. It was heavy

and moved very slowly. Many manufacturers

produced steam-driven automobiles

during the late 1890s and early

1900s. A disadvantage of steam was that

water had to be brought to a boil before

the car could go.

During this same period other manufacturers

produced cars run by electric

motors. Electric cars ran smoothly and

were easy to operate. However, they did

not run well at high speeds. They also

had to have their batteries recharged

every 50 miles (80 kilometers) or so.

British and

American

people use

different

words for

certain parts

of cars. For

example, the

part called the

hood in the

United States

is the bonnet

in Great

Britain.

Two men ride an early automobile in about

1901. The first cars looked very different

than the cars of today.

236 Automobile BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Gas Engines

Etienne Lenoir of France developed a

gasoline-powered internal-combustion

engine in 1860. In 1876 the German

Nikolaus Otto built an improved gasoline

engine. Gasoline engines proved to

be more reliable than the other kinds.

The brothers Charles E. and J. Frank

Duryea built the first successful

gasoline-powered car in the United

States in 1893. Soon several people set

up factories to produce cars.

Development of the Automobile

Industry

Henry Ford made his first automobile in

Detroit in 1896. Ford introduced the

assembly line in 1913. This made it easy

to produce many cars very quickly.

Assembly-line workers stay in one place

and do only a single task as the parts

pass by on a conveyor. Ford soon sold

millions of cars. Several other companies

were established at this time as well.

Innovations

In the period afterWorldWar I (1914–

18), automobiles became easier to operate

and more comfortable. Steel bodies

and heaters became common.

AfterWorldWar II (1939–45) automakers

began using power steering, power

brakes, and automatic controls for windows

and seats. Air conditioning also

became available.

In the late 1950s, European compact

cars like the Volkswagen Beetle caused a

sensation. U.S. makers built their own

compact cars starting in 1959.

The Problem of Oil

The gasoline used in automobiles comes

from petroleum (oil). As the United

States began to use up its own oil

supplies, it looked to other countries for

more. In 1973 the oil-producing

countries stopped shipping as much oil

to the countries that needed it. This

caused high prices and long lines at gas

stations. It also made automakers work

to produce cars that did not use as much

gasoline. Japanese companies were

especially successful at this.

Automobiles also cause air pollution. As

gasoline is burned it produces harmful

gases. Some scientists blame these gases

for a problem called global warming. By

the 21st century some automakers had

created vehicles that combined gasoline

and electric power.

Safety

Early cars were very dangerous to ride

in. Since then automobile manufacturers

have worked to create safer cars. They

installed such devices as seatbelts and air

Hybrid cars use less gasoline than other

cars. They rely on an electric motor for part

of their power.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Automobile 237

bags to protect riders in a crash. They

have also tried to improve the way cars

are built so that the cars will survive a

crash better.

#More to explore

GlobalWarming • Internal-Combustion

Engine • Petroleum • Pollution • Road

Avalanche

An avalanche is a large amount of snow

that quickly moves down a slope. An

avalanche can be deadly because it will

bury or sweep away anything in its path.

Large amounts of sliding earth or other

materials may also be called avalanches.

But these are often known as landslides.

Many different conditions make an avalanche

possible. An avalanche is more

likely to happen on a slope without trees

or large rocks. These things help to keep

snow in place. A weak layer of snow also

makes an avalanche likely. For example,

melting and refreezing may cause a layer

of snow to become slick. Snow piling on

top of this weak layer can easily slide off.

Heavy snowfall, strong wind, and rising

temperature all can start an avalanche.

Falling rocks or ice also can cause snow

to slide. Even the movement of a skier

or a snowmobile can begin an avalanche.

#More to explore

Landslide • Snow

Avocado

Although many people think that avocados

are vegetables, they are actually

fruits. An avocado is a berry with one

large seed, or pit, in the center.

There are more than 1,000 varieties of

avocado. Avocado trees grow wild in

Mexico and in Central and South

America. American Indians in those

areas developed some avocado varieties

thousands of years ago. Today farmers

grow avocados in many places with mild

winters and plenty of sun.

Avocado trees have broad, shiny leaves

that stay green all year. The trees can

grow up to about 65 feet (20 meters)

tall. Their fruits are round or pearshaped.

They vary widely in size. On the

outside the fruits are green or dark

purple. The greenish or yellowish flesh

inside turns soft after picking.

Avocados are rich in fat, protein, and

several vitamins. They can be eaten raw.

Mashed avocado is the main ingredient

in the Mexican sauce called guacamole.

Axum

#see Aksum.

People in

mountainous

areas protect

themselves

from avalanches

in several

ways.

Special fences

hold snow in

place. Barriers

also help to

stop sliding

snow.

The avocado is a fruit with a large seed

inside.

238 Avalanche BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Azerbaijan

The country of Azerbaijan sits at the

crossroads between central Asia, Europe,

and the Middle East. The capital is

Baku.

Azerbaijan is bordered by Russia, Georgia,

Armenia, and Iran. The Caspian Sea

lies to the east. A part of Armenia separates

the Azerbaijani republic of

Nakhichevan from the rest of Azerbaijan.

The Caucasus Mountains run through

northern and southern Azerbaijan. The

central area is a large plain crossed by

the Kura River. Most of Azerbaijan is

dry, with hot summers and mild winters.

The region has many earthquakes.

Most of the country’s people are Azerbaijani,

though there are a few Russians,

Armenians, and other minority groups.

Most people speak Azerbaijani, a Turkic

language. More than 90 percent are

Muslims. However, the people of the

Nagorno-Karabakh region (an area also

claimed by Armenia) are mostly Eastern

Orthodox Christians. About half of the

people live in cities.

Azerbaijan’s economy is based on its

natural resources and agriculture. Its

major resources are petroleum (oil) and

natural gas. Crops include grains, vegetables,

fruit, sugar beets, cotton,

tobacco, and tea. Sheep, goats, and

cattle provide wool and meat. Manufacturers

make mainly food and petroleum

products.

Azerbaijan’s written history is more than

2,000 years old. At various times Arabs,

Persians, Turks, and Mongols dominated

the land. Russia took over Azerbaijan in

the early 1800s. In 1918 Azerbaijan

declared its independence. In 1920,

however, the new Soviet Union invaded

Azerbaijan. At first the Soviets combined

Azerbaijan with Georgia and Armenia.

In 1936 Azerbaijan became a separate

Soviet republic.With the breakup of the

Soviet Union, Azerbaijan gained independence

again in 1991.

In the late 20th and early 21st centuries

Azerbaijan fought with Armenia over

control of the Nagorno-Karabakh

region. Armenia seized control of some

Azerbaijani land.

..More to explore

Baku • Caspian Sea • Union of Soviet

Socialist Republics

Facts About

AZERBAIJAN

Population

(2008 estimate)

8,178,000

Area

33,400 sq mi

(86,600 sq km)

Capital

Baku

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Baku, Ganca,

Sumqayit (Sumgait),

Mingacevir

(Mingechaur), Ali

Bayramli

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Azerbaijan 239

Aztec

In the 1400s and early 1500s the Aztec

people controlled a large empire in the

area that is now central and southern

Mexico. At its most powerful, the Aztec

Empire spread over 80,000 square miles

(207,000 square kilometers). Montezuma

II, the last great Aztec emperor,

ruled over 5 to 6 million people.

How the Aztec Lived

The capital city of the Aztec was

Tenochtitlan. It was built on land that

today is part of Mexico City. Tenochtitlan

reflected the power and wealth of

the empire. It had gleaming white palaces

and temples on top of pyramids.

City officials lived in houses made from

stone and adobe, or sun-dried clay.

Farmers lived in huts made of woven

rods and twigs covered with clay.

Most Aztec were farmers. They grew

corn, beans, peppers, squash, tomatoes,

tobacco, and cotton. Other Aztec were

traders and craftsmen.

The Aztec spoke a language called

Nahua. They had no alphabet of their

own, but they used picture writing to

record their history.

Religion was very important to the

Aztec. They worshipped several gods

who represented the forces of nature,

such as rain or sun. The god of war was

important, too.

The Aztec often used human sacrifice to

get help from the gods. This practice

involved killing a person to honor a god.

The Aztec believed that because life was

humankind’s most precious possession,

it was the best gift for the gods. They

sacrificed thousands of prisoners captured

in war.

History

The Aztec probably moved into central

Mexico from the north in about AD

1200. There they took on parts of the

cultures of earlier peoples, including the

Toltec, the Maya, and the Zapotec. They

founded Tenochtitlan in about 1325.

They conquered neighboring peoples to

build up their empire.

The Aztec were at the height of their

power when Hernan Cortes and his

Spanish soldiers arrived in 1519. The

Spanish put the emperor Montezuma II

in prison, where he died. In 1521 the

Spanish took control of Tenochtitlan,

ending the Aztec Empire. Many of the

Indians living in the Mexico City region

today are descendants of the Aztec.

#More to explore

Cortes, Hernan • Maya • Mexico

• Mexico City • Toltec

An Aztec drawing shows Aztec and Spanish

soldiers just before a battle. The Spanish

are in a building.

240 Aztec BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Britannica

Student

Encyclopedia

Chicago • London • New Delhi • Paris • Seoul • Sydney • Taipei • Tokyo

Volume 2

2010 Britannica Student Encyclopedia

Britannica, Encyclop.dia Britannica, and the thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclop.dia Britannica, Inc.

No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2009904642

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International Standard Book Number: 978-1-61535-363-7

eBook edition January, 2010

Johann Sebastian Bach’s music

did not become popular until

about 50 years after his death.

(See Bach, Johann Sebastian.)

Some kinds of bamboo can

grow as much as 1 foot (0.3

meter) per day.

(See Bamboo.)

Boats were once made of wood

or other natural substances.

Today they are often made of

metal, fiberglass, or plastic.

(See Boat.)

Bonobos, a type of ape, live

only in the rain forests of the

Democratic Republic of the

Congo.

(See Bonobo.)

People have been making

bronze, a mixture of copper

and tin, for more than 5,000

years.

(See Bronze.)

Bach, Johann

Sebastian

German musician Johann Sebastian

Bach is considered one of the world’s

greatest composers of music. He was

also a gifted player of the organ and the

harpsichord (another keyboard instrument).

Bach created hundreds of musical compositions,

including works for choir,

orchestra, and individual instruments,

especially the organ. Among his many

masterpieces are the six Brandenburg

concertos, which have parts for both an

orchestra and solo instruments. Bach

composed many works for Lutheran

church services. He also wrote longer

sacred pieces, such as the Mass in B

Minor (1749), for choir, soloists, and

orchestra.

Early Life

Bach was born on March 21, 1685, in

Eisenach (now in central Germany). His

eldest brother, who was an organist,

probably gave him his first keyboard

lessons. Bach attended school in Luneburg,

where he sang in a boys’ choir. By

the time he left, he was a skilled organist

and composer.

Career

Bach worked as a musician and composer

in churches and in the service of

German noblemen in various cities. His

first major position was as the official

organist for a duke atWeimar. Later he

also became director of the duke’s

orchestra. His duties included composing

a sacred cantata—a type of music for

use during church services—every

month.

In 1723 Bach became the director of

church music for the city of Leipzig.

During his early years in this job, he

composed many cantatas, sometimes up

to one per week. At Leipzig he also

directed an orchestra off and on from

1729 into the early 1740s. Bach died in

Leipzig on July 28, 1750.

During his lifetime Bach was known

mainly for his skill as a musician. After

his death his compositions were mostly

forgotten until the early 1800s. Then

people began to rediscover his works.

Today the music of Bach is highly

acclaimed and is performed frequently.

#More to explore

Classical Music • Musical Instruments

• Orchestra

A painting from 1720 shows Johann

Sebastian Bach.

4 Bach, Johann Sebastian BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bacteria

Bacteria are small organisms, or living

things, that can be found in all natural

environments. They are made of a single

cell. Most bacteria can be seen only with

a microscope.

Bacteria do not have most of the structures

found in the cells of other organisms.

They are much simpler and

smaller than all other cells of living

things.

Bacteria take in food and send out waste

through their cell walls. Most bacteria

reproduce by dividing down the middle

to form two separate cells. These each

divide again to form a total of four cells.

Through this process, billions of bacteria

may form from a single bacterium in

only 24 hours.

Bacteria that cause diseases can get into

the human body through the nose, the

mouth, and cuts in the skin. Once

inside, these bacteria quickly reproduce

and cause illness, called an infection.

The infection may result from the bacteria

themselves or from their poisonous

waste products, called toxins. Luckily,

the immune system of the human body

can fight these threats.

Sometimes the immune system needs

help in fighting off bacteria. Doctors

may inject dead or weakened bacteria

into the human body. This is called a

vaccine. A vaccine prepares the body to

fight off the same bacteria in the future.

Doctors may also use medicines called

antibiotics to kill bacteria in the body.

#More to explore

Antibiotic • Cell • Immune System

• Vaccine

Badger

Badgers are mammals known for their

powerful digging. They are related to

weasels, skunks, otters, and mink.

Badgers live in many habitats, including

grasslands and forests. There are eight

species, or types, of badger. The American

badger lives in the western part of

North America. The Eurasian badger

can be found in Europe and Asia. The

other types live in Southeast Asia. They

include hog badgers, ferret badgers, and

stink badgers.

Badgers are heavily built animals with

short legs. The different species range

from 13 to 32 inches (33 to 81 centimeters)

long, not including the tail. They

Most bacteria are so small that they can be

seen only by using a microscope. This bacteria

sample has been magnified 2,000

times.

Scientists have

found remains

of bacteria

that are more

than 360 million

years old.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Badger 5

are about 9 to 12 inches (23 to 30 centimeters)

high. The American badger

sometimes looks wider than it is high.

Most badgers have gray or brown fur.

Many types have black-and-white marks

on the face and back.

Badgers have strong front feet with

heavy claws that are excellent for digging.

Badgers dig to make underground

homes called burrows. They may also

dig to find small animals such as squirrels,

mice, and rabbits to eat. Many

kinds eat insects, lizards, birds, and

plants, too. Badgers feed mainly at

night.

Badgers are strong for their size. They

can fight fiercely when threatened. All

badgers have scent glands near the tail.

Like skunks, stink badgers shoot a foulsmelling

liquid from these glands at

their enemies.

..More to explore

Mammal • Mink • Otter • Skunk

•Weasel

Baghdad

Population

(2007

estimate), urban

area,

5,054,000

Baghdad is the capital of the Middle

Eastern country of Iraq. It is also Iraq’s

largest city. Baghdad lies on both banks

of the Tigris River.

Most of Iraq’s industries are located in

and around Baghdad. At one time the

city produced a wide variety of goods,

including cloth, furniture, chemicals,

and electrical equipment. The economy

of the city was disrupted by wars in the

late 20th and early 21st centuries.

People have lived on the site of Baghdad

for some 4,000 years. In AD 762 an Arab

Muslim ruler moved the capital of his

large empire there. Baghdad reached its

greatest power in the late 700s and early

800s. It also became a center of learning.

In 1258 the Mongols captured Baghdad.

Later several other foreign powers

invaded the city.

In 1921 Iraq became an independent

country with Baghdad as its capital. The

city began to grow again in size and

importance.

Iraq’s long war with Iran in the 1980s

hurt Baghdad’s development. During

The American badger is usually found in

open, dry areas of western North America.

Like other badgers it has large front claws

that it uses for digging.

6 Baghdad BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

the Persian GulfWar of 1991, the

United States and its allies dropped

bombs on the city. Baghdad suffered

further damage when forces led by the

United States invaded the city in 2003.

#More to explore

Iraq

Baha#i Faith

In the middle of the 1800s a religion

called the Baha#i faith started in what is

now Iran. It later spread around the

world. Its followers, called Baha#is, seek

to bring together all people in one religion.

Beliefs and Practices

Baha#is believe that all religions are one

and all people are one. They also believe

that God is beyond understanding. They

teach that people should worship God

and try to make the world a better place.

At services, members listen to readings

from the scriptures of all religions.

Baha#is have no priests or special ceremonies.

There are rules about prayer

and fasting, however. Also, a person is

supposed to marry only once and should

not use alcohol or tobacco.

History

A man named Mirza !Ali Mohammad

started a group called the Babi in Persia

(now Iran) in 1844. He believed that a

new prophet, or messenger of God,

would soon appear. Muslim leaders and

the government opposed his ideas. He

was arrested, and in 1850 he was killed.

One of the first Babis was Mirza

Hoseyn !Ali Nuri. After he joined the

group, he called himself Baha# Ullah.

He was arrested in 1852. While in jail,

he realized that he was the new

prophet. In 1853 he was released and

sent to Iraq. He led the Babi

community there. The Babis who

believed that he was the new prophet

were called the Baha#is.

Baha# Ullah died in 1892. After his

death, his oldest son led the group. He

helped spread the faith to North

America, Europe, and other continents.

By the end of the 1900s, it had about 7

million followers around the world.

#More to explore

Iran

All Baha#i houses of worship

have nine sides and a dome.

The House of Worship in Wilmette,

Illinois, is the only one in

the United States.

The Baha#i

calendar has

19 months of

19 days each

because the

religion

started with

19 followers.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Baha#i Faith 7

Bahamas, The

Located just southeast of Florida, the

country of The Bahamas is a chain of

islands in the Atlantic Ocean. The capital

is Nassau on New Providence Island.

The Bahamas includes about 700 islands,

but people live on only about 30 of them.

The islands are low and flat. There are no

rivers. The climate is tropical, with warm

weather year-round. From July to

November, hurricanes may occur.

Forests of pine, broadleaf, and palm

trees grow on some islands. Animals of

The Bahamas include frogs, lizards, and

snakes. The surrounding waters are filled

with fish, conchs, crayfish, and other

marine animals.

Most people in The Bahamas trace their

roots to slaves fromWest Africa. Smaller

groups include mulattos (people with

both black and white ancestors), British

and U.S. whites, and Haitians.

The economy of The Bahamas depends

on tourism. Tourists come to enjoy the

beaches and crystal blue waters. Banking

is another important industry. Crayfish,

poultry, and fruit are the main agricultural

products. Bahamians also mine

limestone, harvest salt from the sea, and

make rum.

The peaceful Arawak people lived on the

islands before Europeans arrived.

Christopher Columbus landed in The

Bahamas in 1492 and claimed the islands

for Spain.Within 30 years the Arawak

had completely disappeared fromThe

Bahamas.

British settlers arrived on Eleuthera

Island in 1648. Except for brief control

by both the United States and Spain in

the late 1700s, The Bahamas stayed

British until 1973. That year the islands

gained independence.

..More to explore

Arawak • Columbus, Christopher

• Nassau

Many tourists arrive in The Bahamas on

cruise ships.

Facts About

THE BAHAMAS

Population

(2008 estimate)

335,000

Area

5,382 sq mi

(13,939 sq km)

Capital

Nassau

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Nassau, Freeport,

West End, Cooper’s

Town,

Marsh Harbour

8 Bahamas, The BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bahrain

Bahrain is a small country in the Persian

Gulf. It is made up of one main island,

called Bahrain Island, and about 30

smaller islands off the coast of Saudi

Arabia. The capital is Manama.

Fruit trees grow on the northwestern

coast of Bahrain Island. Desert plants

grow in the dry areas. Animals include

gazelles, hares, lizards, jerboas (desert

rats), and mongooses.

The majority of the country’s people are

Arabs. There are also groups of South

Asians and Persians. Arabic is the official

language, and Islam is the official religion.

Most of the people live in cities.

Bahrain is a center for more than 60

foreign banks. Its major industries

depend on its reserves of petroleum (oil)

and natural gas. Bahrain also manufactures

aluminum products and clothing.

Tourism is a growing industry. Agricultural

goods include dates, other fruits,

vegetables, eggs, and milk.

Bahrain was likely the site of ancient

Dilmun, a trading center in about 2000

BC. Arab Muslims have lived in Bahrain

since the AD 600s. Portugal ruled from

1521 to 1602, followed by the Persians.

In 1783 the Khalifah family drove out

the Persians. A sheikh, or chief, of that

family has ruled Bahrain ever since.

Great Britain took control of Bahrain’s

foreign affairs in the 1800s. Bahrain

declared itself independent in 1971.

Disagreements between two Muslim

groups soon caused problems. About

half of Muslims are Shi!ites, but Sunnites

hold most of the political and economic

power.

..More to explore

Arabs • Islam • Manama

The desert sun shines down on a mosque in

the city of Madinah !Isa, Bahrain.

Facts About

BAHRAIN

Population

(2008 estimate)

1,084,000

Area

277 sq mi (718

sq km)

Capital

Manama

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major urban

areas

Manama, Al

Muharraq,

Ar-Rifa!, Madinat

Hamad, Madinat

!Isa

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bahrain 9

Bairiki

Bairiki is the capital of Kiribati, an

island country in the central Pacific

Ocean. Bairiki is a small coral island. It

is part of a group of coral islands called

Tarawa Atoll.

Bairiki is a center of government,

business, and education for Kiribati.

The office of the president and the

Parliament building are on Bairiki. The

island also has a branch of the

University of the South Pacific. Dried

coconut meat and other products are

shipped from Bairiki’s port.

People have lived on Tarawa Atoll for

thousands of years. In 1892 the British

took over Tarawa and many nearby

islands. The Japanese controlled the

islands briefly in the 1940s, during

WorldWar II. Kiribati became an independent

country in 1979. Bairiki

became its capital.

..More to explore

Coral • Kiribati

Baku

Population

(2006 estimate)

1,132,800

Baku is the capital and largest city of

Azerbaijan, a country of southwestern

Asia. The city lies on Baku Bay, which

is part of the Caspian Sea. Baku has the

best harbor on the Caspian Sea. It is a

center of education, culture, and

industry.

Petroleum (oil) drilling in the Caspian

Sea is a major industry. Processing the

petroleum is the basis of Baku’s

economy. In addition, several factories

in the city make equipment for the

petroleum industry. Others produce

electrical equipment, appliances, cloth,

and shoes. Shipping at Baku’s port also

brings money to the city.

Tarawa Atoll is a long, narrow chain of tiny

islands. Bairiki is at the southern end of the

chain.

A mosque stands near the Caspian Sea in

Baku. In the background is equipment that

drills for petroleum in the sea.

10 Bairiki BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

People have lived in the Baku area for

thousands of years. Oil was first taken

from the area in the 900s. Persians ruled

the region for many years. Russia captured

Baku in 1806. In 1918 Azerbaijan

became an independent country with

Baku as its capital. The Soviet Union

took over Azerbaijan in 1920. Baku

became the national capital again when

Azerbaijan became independent in

1991.

#More to explore

Azerbaijan • Caspian Sea

Balboa, Vasco

Nunez de

The Spanish conquistador (conqueror)

Vasco Nunez de Balboa was the first

European to see the Pacific Ocean. He

also helped to found the first successful

European colony on the mainland of the

Americas.

Balboa was born in Spain in 1475. He

left for America in 1500 and settled on

the island of Hispaniola, in theWest

Indies. In 1510 he sailed with a group

headed for a colony in what is now

Colombia. When they arrived they discovered

that the colony had been abandoned

except for a few people. Balboa

persuaded them to go with him to

Darien, in what is now Panama. There

they established a stable colony.

Indians told Balboa about a great ocean

with gold on its shores. Balboa asked for

a large expedition from Spain to search

for this ocean, but before it arrived he

set out on his own with a smaller group.

In September 1513 he reached the

Pacific, which he called the South Sea,

and claimed it for Spain.

The expedition from Spain arrived in

1514, with Pedro Arias Davila at its

head. Balboa and Davila competed for

power. As governor of Darien, Davila

eventually charged Balboa with various

crimes. Balboa was found guilty and

beheaded in January 1519.

#More to explore

Pacific Ocean

Balkan Peninsula

The Balkan Peninsula is a large piece of

land in southeastern Europe. It is

divided into many countries, including

Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herze-

Vasco Nunez de Balboa govina, Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia,

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Balkan Peninsula 11

Moldova, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania,

Kosovo, Greece, and the European part

of Turkey. Sometimes the region is called

the Balkans. The history of the Balkans

includes many invasions and wars.

Geography

Mountains cover most of the peninsula.

The name Balkan means “mountain” in

the Turkish language. The only large

lowland regions are plains in Romania

and Bulgaria. The Danube River is the

most important waterway of the Balkans.

The northern part of the peninsula

has cold, snowy winters and warm summers.

The south has mild winters and

hot, dry summers.

People

Many different peoples live in the Balkans.

Most of the peoples belong to a

larger group called Slavs. The main

Slavic peoples include Serbs, Croats,

Slovenes, and Macedonians. The other

peoples of the Balkans include Romanians,

Albanians, Bulgarians, Hungarians,

Turks, Germans, and Roma

(Gypsies). Each group has its own language.

Christianity and Islam are the

main religions. Religion has been a

source of conflict in the Balkans.

History

Peoples called Illyrians, Thracians, and

Dacians lived in the Balkans in ancient

times. In 229 BC the Romans invaded

the peninsula. They controlled the Balkans

for many centuries. Christianity

spread through the Roman Empire in

the 300s AD. In 395 the empire divided

in two. The dividing line ran through

the Balkans. The western part of the

empire was ruled from the city of Rome.

The peoples who lived there became

Roman Catholics. The east was ruled

from the city of Constantinople (now

Istanbul, Turkey). The peoples who lived

there became Eastern Orthodox Christians.

At about the same time different

peoples began invading the Balkans

from the north. The Slavs were among

them. By the 500s the Slavs had spread

over much of the peninsula.

The Slavs then started to separate into

different peoples. Religion was a major

force in those separations. The Slavs

who lived in the western part of the Balkans

mostly became Roman Catholics.

Those who lived in the east mostly

became Eastern Orthodox Christians.

Some Balkan peoples created their own

kingdoms. The Bulgarians and the Serbs

built up empires. But in the late 1300s

and 1400s the Ottoman Turks conquered

the Balkans. They made the

whole region part of the Ottoman

Empire. The Turks converted some Slavs

and other peoples to Islam.

12 Balkan Peninsula BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

During the 1800s Balkan peoples

formed states that rebelled against the

Turks. In 1912 the states of Serbia, Bulgaria,

Greece, and Montenegro joined

together to defeat the Turks in war.

Soon, though, the Balkan states began

fighting each other. They disagreed over

who should control the land that had

been won from the Turks. DuringWorld

War I (1914–18) the Balkan states were

split between the two sides.

AfterWorldWar I a new Balkan country

was created. It combined the Slavic

lands of Serbia, Montenegro, Croatia,

Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and

Macedonia. Each became a republic of

the new country. In 1929 the country

was named Yugoslavia.

For many years after World War II

most of the Balkan countries were ruled

by strict Communist governments. In

1989 the Communists began to lose

power. The Balkan countries then made

their governments more democratic.

In 1991 and 1992 Croatia, Slovenia,

Macedonia, and Bosnia and Herzegovina

broke away from Yugoslavia to

form separate countries. That led to

fighting that lasted for several years. The

two republics that stayed in Yugoslavia

were Serbia and Montenegro. In 2003

they dropped the name Yugoslavia.

Then, in 2006, Serbia and Montenegro

split into separate countries. In 2008

another split occurred. The province of

Kosovo declared itself independent from

Serbia. Serbia refused to recognize

Kosovo as an independent country, however.

..More to explore

Europe • Ottoman Empire • Union of

Soviet Socialist Republics • Yugoslavia

Ballet

Ballet is a dance form that began in the

1500s. It is a theatrical art, meaning that

it is performed to music and with costumes

and scenery.

Positions and Steps

Ballet is based on a formal system of

poses and steps that have been changed

only slightly through the years. There

are five basic positions of the feet. In all

of them the legs are “turned out,” or

rotated from the hips so the feet point

outward. The foot positions in ballet are

balanced by matching positions of the

arms. In addition to the position of the

feet and arms, there are two major body

positions. In an arabesque one leg supports

the body’s weight while the other

leg extends backward with the knee

A church stands on an island in the middle

of Lake Bled in Slovenia.

When people

say that a

region or

group is balkanized,

they

mean that it

has been split

up into many

small units.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Ballet 13

straight and the foot pointed. In a similar

position called an attitude, the knee

of the raised leg is bent.

Among the basic steps of ballet are various

jumps, turns, and quick gliding or

sliding steps. Female dancers, called ballerinas,

dance part of the time on the

tips of the toes. This often gives their

movements a floating quality.

History

Ballet developed from dances performed

in the late 1500s for and by members of

the French royal court, including the

king. These court ballets used many

steps of the social dances of the time. In

1661 the French king Louis XIV established

the Royal Academy of Dance for

the study of ballet. Soon only trained

professionals danced in ballets. The

academy’s first director created the five

basic ballet positions. Over the next

several decades, its dancers developed

many of ballet’s basic steps.

Many early ballets combined dancing

with opera or scenes from a play. The

dramatic ballet, which tells a story

through dance, was developed in the

1700s. Choreographers (who create a

dance’s steps and movements) and dancers

of the time also began to use new,

more expressive steps and gestures.

In the mid-1800s French dancer and

choreographer Marius Petipa moved to

Russia and established Saint Petersburg

as the major center for ballet. Petipa and

composer Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky created

several famous ballets, including

Swan Lake, Sleeping Beauty, and The

Nutcracker.

In the early 1900s Sergey Diaghilev

founded a company called the Ballets

Russes. Among his associates were

famous composers and artists and such

great choreographers and dancers as

Ballet dancers use five basic positions of the feet and arms in all of their dancing.

Dancers perform the ballet Swan Lake.

14 Ballet BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Michel Fokine, Leonide Massine, Vaslav

Nijinsky, Anna Pavlova, and George

Balanchine. The Ballets Russes toured

widely and greatly influenced dancers in

theWest. Many of its artists later moved

to the United States.

Balanchine founded what became the

New York City Ballet in the 1940s. He

choreographed more than 150 works for

the company, several featuring music by

Igor Stravinsky. The company that

became the American Ballet Theatre

began performing in 1940. It is also

based in New York City.

Other great companies, such as the

Royal Ballet of England and the Royal

Danish Ballet, also flourished in the

1900s and beyond. In Russia the

Bolshoi Ballet in Moscow and the Kirov

Ballet in Saint Petersburg continued to

uphold the highest standards.

#More to explore

Dance

Balloon

Like airships, balloons are lighter-thanair

craft. They are filled with a gas or

heated air that makes them float in the

air. Early experiments with balloon

flight led to the development of the

motor-powered airship and later the airplane.

Types of Balloons

Balloons come in all shapes and sizes,

from small toy balloons to large

passenger balloons. They can be used

for advertising purposes, for scientific

experiments, for entertainment, or for

recreation. Giant balloons of cartoon

characters and other entertaining

subjects are familiar sights in parades.

These are controlled by people on the

ground, who carry them along the

parade route. Scientific balloons and

those used for recreation are free to

move through the air as they are guided

by a pilot.

How Balloons Fly

A balloon rises because it is filled with a

gas that is lighter than air. The lightest

gas is hydrogen. Hydrogen, however,

catches fire and explodes easily. Helium

is almost as light as hydrogen, and it

does not burn. Helium is used for balloons

that are held down with ropes,

such as the ones seen in parades. Some

free passenger balloons are also filled

with helium or with hydrogen. Others

are filled with heated air, which is lighter

than unheated air. For long-distance

Balloons are popular features of

many parades.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Balloon 15

balloon flights a combination of helium

and hot air is used.

A free passenger balloon has a huge gas

bag, or envelope. It is filled through an

opening at the bottom, called the neck

or appendix. In a hot-air balloon, a propane

burner at the neck keeps the air

inside the bag hot. The entire bag is

enclosed in a strong net. A basket is

attached to the net and hangs underneath

the bag. This holds the passengers.

At the top of the bag is a valve for releasing

gas. This valve is connected to a cord

that usually runs through the bag and

out the neck. It hangs within reach of

the person operating the balloon. Bags

of sand are hung around the basket for

ballast, or extra weight, so that the balloon

does not rise too fast.

The balloon rises gently after the cables

holding it on the ground are unhooked.

The movement of the balloon is largely

controlled by the wind. The main control

the balloonist has is to move the

balloon up and down. As ballast is

thrown overboard, the balloon rises. As

gas is released through the valve, the

balloon drops.

History

Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Etienne

Montgolfier were two brothers who

lived in France. They made the first

successful experiments with hot-air

balloon flights in 1783. The first

balloon passengers were a sheep, a

rooster, and a duck, but soon afterward

two men sailed for 5.5 miles (9

kilometers) over Paris.

Soon others began experimenting with

balloons. Some people focused on the

sport of trying to make longer and

longer flights. Others saw balloons as

useful tools, especially during wartime.

During the American CivilWar and

WorldWar I, armies used balloons to

spy on their enemies. Today scientists

send tools up in balloons to gather

information about the weather and the

upper atmosphere.

Free balloons are still used for sport and

adventure. In 1999 Bertrand Piccard

and Brian Jones became the first balloonists

to complete a nonstop voyage

around the world. Three years later U.S.

adventurer Steve Fossett became the first

person to complete the trip alone. In

Albuquerque, New Mexico, and other

locations there are annual hot-air balloon

festivals featuring hundreds of colorful

balloons.

Colorful hot-air balloons soar

above Albuquerque, New

Mexico.

16 Balloon BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Baltic Sea

An arm of the Atlantic Ocean, the Baltic

is a shallow sea in northern Europe. For

a sea, the Baltic does not have very salty

water. Several rivers, including the Oder

and the Vistula, drain into the sea. The

huge flow of fresh river water keeps the

Baltic from getting too salty.

The Baltic Sea lies between the Scandinavian

peninsula and the rest of Europe.

It covers an area of about 149,000

square miles (386,000 square kilometers).

The countries that border the Baltic

are Sweden, Denmark, Russia,

Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Germany,

and Poland. The coasts of Sweden

and Finland are generally rocky, but the

coasts on the southern Baltic are flat.

The Baltic coastline of Germany has a

lot of bays and shallow inlets called

fjords. Canals link the Baltic to the

North Sea and the Arctic Ocean.

The countries around the Baltic use the

sea for trade. The chief ports are Copenhagen,

Denmark; Stockholm, Sweden;

Helsinki, Finland; Saint Petersburg,

Russia; and Gdansk, Poland.

The Vikings were the first to trade on

the Baltic, in the AD 700s. During the

Middle Ages, German merchants of a

group called the Hanseatic League controlled

trade on the sea. As the countries

around the sea prospered, the area

became more developed. By the middle

of the 1900s pollution from industries

and farms was a concern. In the 1990s

the Baltic countries agreed to clean up

the environment in and around the sea.

..More to explore

Atlantic Ocean

Bamako

Population

(2007

estimate), urban

area,

1,494,000

Bamako is the capital of theWest African

country of Mali. The city is also

A small town in Sweden is set in the rocky

coast of the Baltic Sea.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bamako 17

Mali’s center for industry and trade.

Bamako spans both sides of the Niger

River. Large boats can travel on the river

for part of the year, when the water level

is high. The river is used to ship products

and for fishing.

At first Bamako was a settlement of only

a few hundred people. In 1880 the

French took it over. Bamako became the

capital of a colony called French Sudan

in 1908. When the area became the

country of Mali in 1960, Bamako

became its capital.

#More to explore

Mali

Bamboo

Bamboo is a name used for many types

of tall, treelike grasses. There are hundreds

of different species, or types, of

bamboo in the world. They grow in

mild to warm and humid areas. Most

are in Asia and on islands of the Indian

and Pacific oceans. A few types grow

naturally in the southern United States.

The stems of bamboo are called culms.

They vary greatly in size. The smallest

types are 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 centimeters)

tall. In the largest species the

culms can be more than 130 feet (40

meters) tall. Culms are hollow and grow

in clusters from an underground stem

called a rhizome. Some grow as much as

1 foot (0.3 meter) per day.

Bamboo is used for a variety of purposes,

especially in Asia. In some countries,

the seeds are eaten as grain, or the

young shoots are cooked and eaten as

vegetables. Cattle eat the leaves. Some

types of bamboo are crushed to make

paper. The stems of other types are tied

together and used as rafts. They are also

used to form scaffolding, or a framework

on building construction sites. Bamboo

stems are also used to make buckets,

pipes, furniture, walking sticks, fishing

poles, garden stakes, chopsticks, and

other utensils.

Banana

Bananas are one of the most important

and popular foods in the world. They

are a flavorful fruit that is full of vitamins.

They can be found in stores

throughout the year.

Where Bananas Grow

Scientists believe that bananas first grew

in the tropics in Asia. Over the years

they spread to other humid tropical

places. Today people grow bananas in

Many types of bamboo look like trees, but

they are actually tall grasses.

18 Bamboo BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Africa, Asia, Central America, and South

America.

Physical Features and Growth

Bananas grow on a banana plant.

Although it is often called a tree, the

banana plant is really a large herb. That

means it does not have a woody trunk

like a tree. Instead the banana plant has

a stalk that looks like a tree trunk. The

stalk grows from an underground stem.

The banana plant can be more than 20

feet (6 meters) tall. Large leaves grow

near the top. These leaves are 9 to 12

feet (3 to 3.5 meters) long. Each plant

produces 50 to 150 bananas. The

bananas grow in clusters of 10 to 20.

The bananas are usually chopped down

while green and unripe.

A banana plant only produces one

bunch of fruit. After the bananas have

been picked, the plant is cut down. In

six months new shoots grow from the

underground stem.

There are hundreds of types of banana.

One of the most popular is the common

banana. Its fruit is yellow and sweet

when ripe.

Uses

Bananas contain the mineral called

potassium. They are also a good source

of vitamins A and C. Bananas are usually

eaten fresh. However, they can be

used in pies, muffins, cakes, or breads.

The plantain is a close relative of the

common banana. It is always cooked

before being eaten.

..More to explore

Fruit • Herb

Bandar Seri

Begawan

Population

(2001 census),

city, 27,285;

(2004

estimate), urban

area, 81,500

Bandar Seri Begawan is the capital of

Brunei, a country in Southeast Asia. It is

also Brunei’s largest city. The city has a

port on the Brunei River. Ships can

travel from the port to the South China

Sea. Bandar Seri Begawan is a center for

the trade of farm products. It also has

Bananas grow in clusters on a

banana plant.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bandar Seri Begawan 19

factories for processing Brunei’s rich

reserves of oil and natural gas.

A water village probably existed in the

region as early as the 600s. The modern

city became the capital of Brunei in

1920. Bombing duringWorldWar II

(1939–45) destroyed most of the city.

But after the war the city was rebuilt.

..More to explore

Brunei

Bangkok

Population

(2007 estimate)

6,704,000

Bangkok is the capital of Thailand, a

country of Southeast Asia. It is Thailand’s

largest city by far. Bangkok is a

center for government, education, culture,

and business. It is also Thailand’s

main port. The city lies on both banks

of the Chao Phraya River.

More than 300 groups of Buddhist

temple buildings, called wats, are found

throughout Bangkok. They are centers

of the city’s religious and cultural life.

Factories in Bangkok process foods and

make cloth, building materials, and electronics.

Rice, tapioca, rubber, sugarcane,

and other products are shipped from the

city’s port. Tourism is also important to

the economy.

In 1782 Bangkok became the capital of

the kingdom of Siam, which is now

Thailand. Railways, electricity, and

other improvements made the city more

modern in the 1800s and early 1900s.

Bangkok began to grow rapidly in the

second half of the 1900s.

..More to explore

Thailand

A mosque in Bandar Seri Begawan is set in

an artificial lake.

Merchants sell fruits, vegetables, and other

items from boats at a floating market in

Bangkok.

20 Bangkok BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a country in south-central

Asia. It is one of the most crowded

countries in the world. Although 92

countries are larger than Bangladesh,

only seven have more people. Dhaka is

the capital.

Geography

Bangladesh is surrounded by India and

Myanmar. The Bay of Bengal lies to the

south. The country’s many rivers

include the Ganges (known as the

Padma in Bangladesh), the Brahmaputra

(known as the Jamuna in Bangladesh),

the Tista, the Meghna, the Surma, the

Karnaphuli, the Sangu, and the Matamuhari.

Bangladesh has a tropical monsoon

climate. This means that it has heavy

rains and high temperatures during the

summer. Damaging floods occur every

two or three summers. In 1991 a

cyclone killed more than 100,000

people. The winters, however, are dry

and cool.

Plants and Animals

Forests cover about one sixth of Bangladesh.

Plant life includes groves of

mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut,

coconut, and date palm trees. The country’s

animals include elephants, royal

Bengal tigers, langur monkeys, leopards,

and black bears. About 750 types of bird

nest in Bangladesh, and snakes are also

common.

People

Almost 98 percent of the people are

Bengalis. They speak Bengali, the state

language.West Bengal, a neighboring

state of India, shares the Bengali culture.

Islam is the main religion in Bangladesh.

Followers of Islam, called Muslims,

make up about 86 percent of the population.

About 12 percent of the people

are Hindus. The rest are mostly Buddhists

and Christians.

Economy

Bangladesh is a poor country. Most of

the people live in rural areas and make

their living by farming. The main crops

are rice, sugarcane, potatoes, wheat, jute,

bananas, sweet potatoes, oilseeds, mangoes,

and tea. Goats and cattle are the

main livestock.

Bangladesh is one of the world’s largest

producers of jute fibers. These fibers are

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bangladesh 21

used to make fabric and twine. Manufacturers

also make clothing, shoes,

tobacco and food products, chemicals,

and iron and steel.

History

Bangladesh is part of a historic region

called Bengal. From the 700s to the

1100s Buddhist and Hindu kings ruled

Bengal. Muslims invaded in about 1200.

The region remained largely independent

until the 1600s. Then the Mughal

Empire, which controlled India at the

time, made Bengal one of its provinces.

The British took control of all of India

in the 1700s. They ruled the area as a

colony until 1947.

After the British left, the colony of India

was divided into two independent countries:

India and Pakistan. India lay

between Pakistan’s two provinces—East

Pakistan (now Bangladesh) andWest

Pakistan (now Pakistan). The people of

East andWest Pakistan spoke different

languages and had different cultures.

The provinces struggled for power.War

broke out in 1971. About 1 million

Bengalis were killed, and millions more

fled to India. India helped East Pakistan

defeatWest Pakistan. Then East Pakistan

became the independent country of

Bangladesh.

Bangladesh held its first national election

in 1973, but the military soon took

over the government. Beginning in 1991

Bangladesh held a series of free elections.

However, the elections often led to protests

and violence over the results.

..More to explore

Dhaka • Ganges River • India • Islam

• Pakistan • Tiger

A fishing boat sails on the Meghna River in Bangladesh.

Facts About

BANGLADESH

Population

(2008 estimate)

142,547,000

Area

56,977 sq mi

(147,570 sq km)

Capital

Dhaka

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Dhaka, Chittagong,

Khulna,

Rajshahi

22 Bangladesh BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bangui

Population

(2003 census)

622,771

Bangui is the capital and largest city of

the Central African Republic, a country

in the middle of Africa. The city is

located on the Ubangi River.

Bangui is the country’s main port. Rivers

and railroads connect it with other

cities and to theWest African coast.

Bangui is also the country’s largest city

and center for manufacturing and business.

The city has a university as well.

The French built a fort in the area in

1889 to help them take control of central

Africa. Bangui grew up around the

fort. The city later became the capital of

the French colony in the area. In 1960

the Central African Republic became

independent from France. Bangui

became the new country’s capital.

Different groups tried to take over the

government of the Central African

Republic in Bangui several times in the

late 20th and early 21st centuries. Bangui

was then the site of power struggles,

riots, and looting.

#More to explore

Central African Republic

Banjul

Population

(2003 estimate),

city, 34,800;

metropolitan

area, 523,600

Banjul is the capital of theWest African

country of The Gambia. The city lies on

Saint Mary’s Island in the Gambia

River. It is the largest city in the country.

Banjul is The Gambia’s center for business

and transportation. The city’s factories

process peanuts and peanut oil.

These and other products are shipped to

other countries from Banjul’s port.

Tourism also brings money to the city.

The city dates from 1816, when the

British set up a fort and trading post on

the site. They named the settlement

Bathurst. The British used the fort to

force an end to the slave trade on the

Workers stack bags of peanuts in a warehouse

in Banjul.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Banjul 23

western coast of Africa. In 1965 The

Gambia became an independent country

with Bathurst as its capital. The city

was renamed Banjul in 1973.

#More to explore

Gambia, The

Bank and

Banking

A bank is a business that borrows and

lends money. It borrows money from

customers called depositors. It lends

money to other customers called borrowers.

It pays fees to the depositors and

collects fees from the borrowers. The

fees are called interest. The bank makes

a profit by collecting more interest than

it pays out. Modern banks do many

other things for their customers as well.

Bank Accounts

A person who has money deposited in a

bank is said to have a bank account.

One kind of bank account is called a

checking account. A person with a

checking account can write checks to

pay for things. A check is an instruction

to the bank to pay out money from that

person’s account. People can also use a

plastic card, called a debit or check card,

to pay out money from their checking

accounts. Checking accounts pay little

or no interest to the depositor. People

use them because they are a safe and

convenient way to handle money.

Another kind of bank account is a savings

account. People keep money in

savings accounts in order to earn interest.

The bank pays a certain amount of

interest for every dollar that someone

has in their savings account.

A bank keeps only part of the money in

its accounts as cash. It uses the rest to

lend to other people and to make investments.

It keeps track of all this money in

computers.

Lending and Other Services

People and businesses often borrow

money from banks. The money they

borrow is called a loan. They pay the

loan back with interest. They usually

pay in monthly portions called installments.

If the borrower does not repay,

the bank may take away the thing—a

car, for example—that the loan paid for.

Modern banks provide other services as

well. Some banks sell insurance, provide

help with taxes, and handle investments

Young people can open a savings

account at a bank with the

help of a parent or another relative.

24 Bank and Banking BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

in stocks and bonds. Many banks issue

credit cards and send monthly bills to

the people who use them. Banks also

maintain automated teller machines, or

ATMs. Bank customers can use the

ATMs to withdraw money from their

accounts or to make deposits.

Types of Banks

The banks most people use are called

commercial banks.Other kinds of banks

do special things. Investment banks sell

stocks and bonds. Credit unions make

loans to workers. Savings banks and

associations make loans to home buyers.

Central banks—such as the Bank of

England or the banks of the U.S. Federal

Reserve System—are responsible for their

country’s money. International banks

lend money to developing countries.

History

There was banking in ancient Mesopotamia

at least 4,000 years ago. The

first bankers kept gold and silver for

people and also lent it out. In ancient

Greece and Rome there were companies

very much like modern banks.

Florence and Venice, two cities in Italy,

became banking centers in the 1400s. In

England gold dealers served as bankers

until the Bank of England was founded

in 1694.

Many people in the United States did

not want the U.S. government to control

banking. The central Bank of the

United States closed in 1836. But in

1913 the U.S. government set up the

Federal Reserve System. This system

oversees U.S. banks today.

Many banks failed during a period

known as the Great Depression that

started in 1929. Depositors at these

banks lost their money. To protect

depositors, the U.S. Congress set up the

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation

(FDIC) in 1933. The FDIC gives

depositors money if their bank fails.

Today banks use computers for nearly all

their business. Customers often use their

home computers for banking, too.

A woman uses an automated teller machine

in Shanghai, China.

Some aid agencies operate small banks

and credit unions to help people in developing

areas. They loan money to people to

start small businesses.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bank and Banking 25

People can pay bills or transfer money

between their bank accounts over the

Internet.

#More to explore

Money

Banneker,

Benjamin

A man of many talents, Benjamin Banneker

was one of the first distinguished

African American scientists and mathematicians.

He was also an inventor and

a writer.

Banneker was born on November 9,

1731, in Ellicott’s Mills, Maryland. His

father had been a slave, but Benjamin

was free. Although he had little schooling,

he grew up with a love of book

learning.

Banneker attracted attention in his early

20s by designing and building a wooden

clock. It was the first clock of its type to

be built in what is now the United

States.

Banneker taught himself astronomy and

in 1791 began to publish a yearly almanac.

In it he tracked when the sun,

Moon, and stars would appear in the

skies on every day in the coming year.

His almanacs were praised by European

scientists. Banneker also wrote essays

and pamphlets arguing against slavery

and war.

In the 1790s Banneker helped to lay out

the new national capital of Washington,

D.C. When the city plans were lost,

Banneker was able to reproduce them

from memory. He died in Baltimore,

Maryland, on October 25, 1806.

#More to explore

Astronomy •Washington, D.C.

An illustration from the 1400s shows people

using a bank in the city of Florence.

A U.S. postage stamp honors

African American scientist Benjamin

Banneker.

26 Banneker, Benjamin BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Barbados

The island country of Barbados lies at the

eastern end of theWest Indies, a group of

islands in the Caribbean Sea. A longtime

British colony, Barbados still shows the

influence of British culture. Bridgetown

is the capital and largest city.

Coral reefs surround Barbados. The surface

of the island is also made of coral,

which lies over rocks. There are no rivers

or lakes and few hilly areas. Barbados

has a moderate tropical climate with wet

and dry seasons.

The most common plant on Barbados is

sugarcane, which is grown on large plantations.

Trees include mahogany and

cabbage palm. Monkeys, hares, mongooses,

and egrets are common animals.

Green dolphins, barracudas, and parrot

fish live in the surrounding waters.

Barbados is a densely populated island.

About half of the people live in cities or

towns. Most Barbadians have African

ancestors. Smaller numbers of people

have mixed, British, U.S., or Asian

ancestry. English is the official language

of Barbados. Some people speak a form

of English called Bajan. Most of the

people are Christians.

The economy of Barbados is based on

tourism and on the production of sugar

and rum. Finance and other services are

also important. Manufacturers make

chemicals, paper, and metal products.

Arawak people may have lived on Barbados

when the Spanish visited the island

in the early 1500s. The English settled

there in 1627. They built sugar plantations

and brought slaves from Africa to

work on them. Great Britain ruled the

island until 1966. Barbados then

became an independent country.

..More to explore

Bridgetown • Coral •West Indies

A market that sells souvenirs to tourists is

located near a boat docking area in

Barbados.

Facts About

BARBADOS

Population

(2008 estimate)

282,000

Area

166 sq mi (430

sq km)

Capital

Bridgetown

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Bridgetown,

Speightstown

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Barbados 27

Bark

Bark is the outer layer of the trunk of a

tree. Trees have an inner and an outer

layer of bark.

The inner layer of bark is alive and continues

to grow as the tree grows. It contains

a tissue called phloem. Phloem

carries the food that is made in the

leaves to all the other parts of the tree.

The outer layer of bark is dead. As the

living bark grows, it pushes outward and

later dies. It then becomes the rough

bark that is seen on the trunk of a tree.

Even though the outer layer of bark is

dead, it is still very useful to the tree. It

helps to keep water in the tree from

escaping. It also protects the tree from

injury by people, animals, and weather.

In addition, the outer bark helps to keep

out living things such as germs and

fungi, which can cause diseases.

#More to explore

Tree

Barley

Barley is a valuable grain. Grains are

grasses that produce seeds that can be

eaten. Barley seeds are called kernels or

barleycorns.

Barley was probably first grown in

Ethiopia and Southeast Asia in ancient

times. Today Russia, Canada, and Germany

are leading barley producers.

A barley plant grows to about 1 to 4 feet

(0.3 to 1.2 meters) tall. It has a thin

stem and long, narrow leaves. At the

ends of the stems are structures called

spikes, which produce small flowers.

The flowers develop into kernels. Each

spike produces two to six rows of kernels,

depending on the type of plant.

About half of the world’s barley is used

to feed livestock. The rest is used for

human foods and for malting. Malted

barley is soaked in water and then dried

Bark helps protect trees from people, animals,

and weather.

Kernels of barley grow in neat

rows.

28 Bark BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

with hot air. It is used mostly to make

beer. A type called pearl barley is

common in hot cereal and soups.

Barley is also ground into flour and

used to make flatbread and porridge,

which is like oatmeal. The stems of

barley plants are used as bedding and

food for farm animals.

#More to explore

Grain • Grass

Barracuda

Barracudas are among the fiercest fish in

tropical waters. They circle around

groups of smaller fish until the fish

huddle together in fear. The barracudas

then dive in and slash the fish with their

teeth. The species, or type, called the

great barracuda will sometimes even

attack human swimmers.

There are about 20 species of barracuda.

They live in warmer parts of the Atlantic

and Pacific oceans, including the Caribbean

Sea. Fishers often catch them for

sport and food. But barracudas that live

in some seas can be poisonous.

Barracudas have long mouths filled with

large, knifelike teeth. Their slender,

powerful bodies help them swim fast.

They have two fins on the back and

small scales on the body. Barracudas

average about 3 to 4 feet (1 meter) in

length. The great barracuda can reach a

length of 8 feet (2 meters).

Barracudas travel far in search of food.

They eat mainly smaller fish, such as

mullets, anchovies, and grunts.

#More to explore

Fish

Barton, Clara

Clara Barton was called “the angel of the

battlefield” for her work tending to

wounded soldiers in the American Civil

War. Later she organized the American

Red Cross to aid the victims of all wars

and disasters.

Clarissa Harlowe Barton was born on

December 25, 1821, in Oxford, Massachusetts.

She was educated at home. As

a young woman she taught school in

Massachusetts and New Jersey.

When the American Civil War began in

1861, Barton heard that Union

(Northern) soldiers were suffering and

dying because there were not enough

bandages and other medical supplies.

She organized a private agency to buy

supplies. Starting in 1862 she herself

worked as an unpaid nurse, aiding the

wounded where they fell. After the war

she led an effort to track down missing

soldiers.

Clara Barton

helped the

United States

to agree to

the Geneva

Convention.

The convention

was an

agreement

that protected

wounded

soldiers.

Barracuda

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Barton, Clara 29

Some people in Europe also wanted to

help soldiers wounded in battle. In 1863

these people founded the International

Red Cross. In 1870, while Barton was

staying in Europe, a war broke out

between France and Germany. Barton

tended the wounded under the Red

Cross banner. She also studied how the

organization worked.

Barton returned home in 1873 and

worked to organize a branch of the Red

Cross in the United States. She succeeded

in 1881. Barton was head of the

American Red Cross for 23 years. She

expanded the mission of the organization

to include helping victims of disasters

in peacetime as well as in war. In

1904 Barton retired. She died on April

12, 1912.

#More to explore

American CivilWar • Red Cross and

Red Crescent

Base

#see Acid and Base.

Baseball

The sport of baseball has been called the

national pastime of the United States.

Each spring millions of fans look forward

to the beginning of a new baseball

season. Baseball is also popular in many

Latin American and Asian countries,

especially Japan. The game is played

with a bat and a fist-sized ball. Two

teams of nine players compete against

each other. The goal is to score the most

points, which are called runs.

Playing Area and Equipment

A baseball field is divided into an infield

and an outfield.Within the infield is a

square area called the diamond. There

are four bases, one on each corner of the

diamond. One base is called home plate.

The others are called first, second, and

third base. The bases are 90 feet (about

27 meters) apart. The outfield is a grassy

area beyond the infield. A wall usually

marks the outer boundary of the outfield.

Clara Barton

A Boston Red Sox player bats during the

2004 World Series against the Saint Louis

Cardinals.

30 Base BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

A raised, circular mound is located in

the middle of the infield diamond. A

player called the pitcher throws the ball

toward home plate from a spot on the

mound. The spot is known as the rubber.

In professional baseball the rubber

is 60 feet, 6 inches (18.4 meters) from

home plate.

A baseball has a core made of cork and

rubber. Yarn is wrapped around the core.

The cover is made of two strips of white

leather that are sewn together. Players

hit the ball with a bat. A baseball bat is a

smooth, rounded stick made of wood or

aluminum. To catch the ball, players

wear leather gloves.

Playing the Game

The two teams in a baseball game take

turns being batters (playing offense) and

fielders (playing defense). The batting

team, also called the team at bat, tries to

score runs. It does this by advancing its

players around the bases. The fielding

team tries to prevent the batting team

from scoring.

Play begins when the fielding team’s

pitcher throws, or pitches, the ball

toward home plate. A batter tries to hit

the pitched ball, called a pitch, out of

the reach of the fielders. The fielding

team tries to get the batters out. When a

batter is called out his turn at bat is over.

The pitcher can get a batter out by

throwing three strikes. This is called a

strikeout. An umpire behind home

plate calls each pitch either a strike or a

ball. A strike is a pitch that passes

through the strike zone. The strike zone

is an imaginary rectangular box above

home plate. From bottom to top, it

extends from the batter’s knees to about

the middle of his chest. The umpire

calls a strike if the batter fails to swing

at a pitch thrown in the strike zone.

The batter also gets a strike for

swinging at the ball and missing.

If a pitch is outside the strike zone and

the batter does not swing, the umpire

calls a ball. If the umpire calls four balls

during a batter’s turn at bat, the batter

receives a walk. A walk lets the batter go

to first base. The batter also goes to first

base if a pitch hits him.

If the batter hits the ball onto the field,

he tries to run to first base or farther

without making an out. The fielders can

get the batter out in a variety of ways.

For example, they can catch a hit ball

before it bounces. They can also scoop

up the ball and throw it to first base

before the batter gets there.With the

ball in hand, a fielder may also tag the

Baseball fields do not all look the same, but

they all have certain features in common.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Baseball 31

batter out. If the batter safely gets to first

base or farther, he is said to have gotten

a hit.

After a batter reaches a base, he becomes

a base runner. He tries to advance from

base to base around the diamond. Usually

he does this as the next batters get

hits of their own. The batting team

scores a run when a base runner goes all

the way around the bases and returns to

home plate.

After three batters have made outs, the

fielding team takes its turn at bat. A

period of play called an inning is completed

after both teams have batted.

After nine innings, the team with the

most runs wins. If a game is tied, the

teams play extra innings until the tie is

broken.

History

Historians once thought that Abner

Doubleday, a U.S. Army officer,

invented baseball in 1839 in Cooperstown,

New York. Now, though, most

historians agree that baseball developed

from an English game called rounders.

English children played rounders in the

1700s. The game was quite similar to

modern baseball. It had nine-member

teams and a diamond-shaped infield

with bases on the corners.

In 1845 Alexander Cartwright organized

the Knickerbocker Base Ball Club in

New York City. The club was made up

of amateur players (players who were

not paid). The club put together a set of

rules for playing the game. Many of

those rules are still used today.

In 1869 the Cincinnati Red Stockings

began to pay players. The Red Stockings

are considered to be the first professional

baseball team. Two years later nine

teams formed the first professional baseball

association. In 1876 the National

League was formed. The American

League was founded in 1900 as a rival to

the National League.

Today the National and American

leagues are combined in the organization

called Major League Baseball. As of

2006 there were 30 professional teams

divided between the two leagues. Since

1903 the best teams from each league

have competed in a championship called

the World Series.

Amateur baseball is played in high

schools and colleges. Younger children

play baseball in the Little League system.

The Cleveland

Spiders of

1899 had one

of the worst

major league

baseball seasons

ever.

They won 20

games and

lost 134.

African Americans were not allowed to

play in baseball’s major leagues until

1947. Jackie Robinson was the first African

American to join a team. In 1949 Roy

Campanella, Larry Doby, Don Newcombe,

and Robinson (from left) were the first to

play in an All-Star game.

32 Baseball BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Each year the two best teams compete in

the Little LeagueWorld Series.

Basho

Basho was one of the most important

poets of Japan. He is considered the

master of the haiku, a type of poem that

has only three lines.

Basho’s original name was Matsuo

Manefusa. He was born in 1644 near

Kyoto, Japan. Basho was a member of

the samurai, a class of warriors. He

worked for a landowner, and the two

men wrote poetry together.

After the landowner died in 1666,

Basho devoted himself to writing. He

published his first poems in 1671 and

soon began attracting students and

admirers. In 1680 his students built him

a house. They planted a basho, or

banana plant, in the yard. That plant

was the source of his pen name.

Basho forever changed Japanese poetry.

Earlier haiku were playful and silly. But

Basho wrote serious artistic haiku. Many

of his poems were about nature. Soon

other poets began copying his style.

Basho also became known for his poetic

diaries. He wrote them during four long

journeys he took on foot across Japan.

The diaries include descriptions of the

places he visited, his thoughts, and

many short poems. The most famous is

The Narrow Road to the Deep North.

Basho died while on a journey in 1694.

#More to explore

Japan • Poetry • Samurai

Basketball

Basketball is a fast-paced and exciting

sport. It is very popular in the United

States, where it began in the 1890s. It

has also become popular in many other

countries. In a basketball game two

teams of five players compete. The goal

is to score more points than the other

team. Players score by tossing, or shooting,

a ball through a raised goal called a

basket.

Playing Area and Equipment

Basketball is played on a rectangular

court. A professional basketball court is

94 feet (28.7 meters) long and 50 feet

(15.2 meters) wide. High school and

international courts may be slightly

smaller.

A haiku is a

very short

poem. It has

three lines that

have five,

seven, and

five syllables

each.

A woodblock print from the

1800s shows Basho standing

and talking to two others.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Basketball 33

Each end of the court has a basket. The

basket is a metal ring with a net hanging

from the rim. It is attached to a backboard,

which is usually made of strong

glass. The rim of the basket is 10 feet (3

meters) above the floor of the court. A

basketball is round and full of air, which

makes it bounce well.

Playing the Game

A basketball team has five players: two

forwards, two guards, and a center. The

players are named for the different positions,

or roles, that they play on the

court. In general, the players at each

position have special abilities and duties.

For example, guards usually excel at

moving the ball down the court and

passing it to teammates.

Basketball players play both offense and

defense. When a team has the ball, it is

on offense and tries to score points. The

other team plays defense—it defends the

basket at its end of the court. The defensive

team tries to keep the other team

from scoring. It also tries to gain control

of the ball by taking it away from the

offensive team.

Play begins with a jump ball. A referee

tosses up the ball between two opposing

players in the middle of the court, inside

a circle called the center circle. The two

players jump for the ball and try to tap

it to a teammate. The other players

stand outside the center circle, ready to

catch the ball. The team that gets control

of the ball plays offense first.

The offensive team tries to advance the

ball toward the defensive team’s basket.

Offensive players can pass the ball to

teammates. They can also move the ball

down the court by themselves. However,

players cannot run freely with the ball.

They must dribble, or bounce, the ball

on the court as they run with it.

Any player with the ball may take a shot

at the basket. Most successful shots score

two points. Very long shots, from

behind a line called the three-point line,

score three points.

The defensive team tries to keep the

offense from getting a good shot at the

basket. When a shot is missed, both

teams try to recover the ball. This is

called rebounding. If the offense gets the

Every U.S. professional basketball court has the same dimensions.

34 Basketball BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

ball on the rebound, it can try to take

another shot. If the defense gets the

rebound, then it becomes the offense. It

tries to move the ball down the court to

the opponent’s basket. The defense can

also get the ball by taking it away, or

stealing it, from the offense. Defenders

can make a steal when the offense is

passing or dribbling the ball.

A group of officials makes sure that the

players follow the rules. The officials

penalize a team when one of its players

breaks a rule. For example, if an offensive

player runs without dribbling the

ball, the officials give the ball to the

defense. Some penalties are called fouls.

Most fouls happen when one player

makes physical contact with another

player. For example, officials call fouls

for bumping, pushing, and tripping.

The player who is fouled often gets to

take shots without having to worry

about the defense. These shots are called

free throws. They score one point.

History

James Naismith invented basketball in

1891. Naismith was a physical education

teacher in Springfield, Massachusetts.

His school asked him to create a

sport that students could play indoors

during the winter. The first basketball

game had peach baskets as the goals.

That is why the sport was named basketball.

The metal hoop was not invented

until 1906.

Basketball quickly became popular

throughout the United States. Both men

and women started playing basketball at

the college level in the early 1890s. The

first professional basketball league in the

United States was formed in 1898. The

National Basketball Association (NBA)

started in 1949. It is the main professional

league in the United States today.

Outside the United States, basketball

developed more slowly. Men’s basketball

became an Olympic event in 1936.

International world championships

began in 1950 for men and in 1953 for

women.Women’s basketball was added

to the Olympics in 1976.

The NBA grew especially popular in the

1980s. More games were televised than

ever before. Outstanding players such as

Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and Michael

Jordan attracted many new fans.

The first women’s professional leagues

in the United States began during the

1970s. They failed after a year or two.

The currentWomen’s National Basketball

Association (WNBA) began in

1997.

As one player tries to get the ball in the

basket another raises his hand to try to stop

him.

James

Naismith’s

original rules

of basketball

did not allow

players to run

with the ball.

They had to

throw it from

the spot where

they caught it.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Basketball 35

High school and college championship

tournaments are traditionally held in

March. There are separate tournaments

for both men’s and women’s teams.

#More to explore

Johnson, Magic • Jordan, Michael

Basque

The Basques are a people with a unique

history and culture. Most Basques live in

northern Spain, but some live in southern

France. They have lived in this

region for many hundreds of years.

Some Basques have moved away from

Europe, mostly to South America and

the United States.

The Basques have a unique language

called Euskara. It is unlike any other

European language. Some Basques who

live in the mountains still speak Euskara.

However, most Basques speak either

Spanish or French.

The Basques traditionally were farmers.

They also sailed far over the Atlantic

Ocean to fish and hunt whales. In more

recent times they have built large industrial

towns. Their factories make lumber,

furniture, iron, and steel.

For many years some Basques living in

Spain have not liked being under Spain’s

control. They have worked to get more

control over their region. In 1978 the

Spanish government gave the Basques in

Spain some of the freedom they wanted.

For example, the Basques won the right

to make their own laws.

However, some Basques want to break

away from Spain completely. Their goal

is to form an independent Basque

nation. Some of these Basques belong to

a terrorist group known as the ETA.

People carrying Basque flags attend a rally

for Basque independence held near Bilbao,

Spain.

Basketball is a very popular sport at the

college level for both men and women.

36 Basque BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

They have killed Spanish officials and

performed other acts of violence.

..More to explore

France • Spain

Bass

The fish called bass are valued all over

the world as a source of food. There are

hundreds of different species, or types,

of bass. Many of them belong to the sea

bass family. Others, such as black bass,

belong to the sunfish family. Some fish

in other families are also called bass.

Most bass have a spiky fin running

along their back. Many are dark on top

with a pale belly. Bass vary greatly in

size. Rock bass are about 6 inches (15

centimeters) long. By contrast, giant sea

bass may be more than 6 feet (2 meters)

long and more than 500 pounds (225

kilograms) in weight.

Sea bass are large-mouthed ocean fishes

that usually prefer warmer waters. They

are usually large. Some can change color.

Sea bass feed on fish, mollusks, and

other small animals without spines.

They also eat crustaceans, which are

animals that live in shells.

Black bass live in the freshwater ponds,

rivers, and lakes of North America.

Largemouth black bass have an upper

jawbone that extends beyond their eyes.

Their body varies in color from green to

black, with a dark, horizontal stripe.

Smallmouth black bass are smaller and

have a green to brownish color. Black

bass feed on smaller fishes.

..More to explore

Fish

Basseterre

Population

(2006 estimate)

12,900

Basseterre is the capital of Saint Kitts

and Nevis, an island country in the Caribbean

Sea. The town is located on the

coast of Saint Kitts Island. It is the

country’s largest town and main port.

Basseterre is also a center for shipping

goods to nearby islands. Its chief industries

are tourism and sugar processing.

The French founded Basseterre in 1627.

The British took over Basseterre and the

rest of Saint Kitts and Nevis in 1783. A

fire destroyed Basseterre in 1867, but

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Basseterre 37

the town was rebuilt. In 1983 Saint

Kitts and Nevis became an independent

country. Basseterre became its capital.

#More to explore

Saint Kitts and Nevis

Bastille Day

The French celebrate their freedom each

year on July 14. On that day in 1789 an

angry mob attacked the Bastille, a state

prison in Paris. The mob associated the

prison with the harsh rule of the king of

France. The attack is therefore considered

the beginning of the French Revolution,

which forced the king to give up

control of the country. French people

celebrate the day much as Americans

celebrate the Fourth of July, with

parades, speeches, and fireworks.

Bastille Day was first celebrated in 1790,

but it did not become a French national

holiday until 1880. Long before that,

the Bastille itself was torn down.

#More to explore

French Revolution

Bat

Bats are the only mammals that can

truly fly. Sometimes people mistake bats

for birds. But bats are more closely

related to other mammals—including

humans—than they are to birds. And

bats do not have feathers.

Where Bats Live

There are about 900 species, or types, of

bat. Bats are found worldwide, especially

in the tropics. They usually rest in dark

places such as caves, hollow trees, or

attics.

Physical Features

Bats have fur that is usually gray, tan,

brown, or black. They vary greatly in

size, depending on the species. Their

wings can measure from 6 inches (15

centimeters) to 5 feet (1.5 meters) across

when spread open. Their ears point forward

and are usually very large.

Jets trail the French national colors

at a Bastille Day parade in

Paris, France.

A leaf-nosed bat flies in the night.

38 Bastille Day BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

The wings consist of thin layers of bare

skin. They stretch from the long arms

down to the legs.

Behavior

Most kinds of bat live in large groups.

Nearly all bats rest during the day. Most

bats eat flying insects. Some kinds eat

small animals such as birds, frogs, mice,

and fish. Other kinds eat fruit or the

pollen and nectar from flowers. The

vampire bats of South and Central

America feed on the blood of mammals

and large birds.

While flying, most bats send out a cry.

This cry is so high-pitched that people

cannot hear it. The sounds bounce off

objects and echo back to the bat. The

bat can figure out the distance and size

of the objects based on the returning

sounds. Bats use this information to

avoid flying into objects in their paths

and also to find insects to eat.

..More to explore

Animal • Mammal

Baton Rouge

Population

(2000 census),

city, 227,818;

(2007 estimate)

227,071

Baton Rouge is the capital of the U.S.

state of Louisiana. The city is located on

theMississippi River. It is one of the

leading U.S. ports. Goods brought to the

port by rail and river are transferred to

oceangoing ships. Baton Rouge is also a

center of industry and services. Its chief

industries process oil and natural gas.

The French founded Baton Rouge in

1719. The city and its surrounding area

changed hands several times. The British

gained control of Louisiana in 1763. But

the Spanish captured it in 1779. In

1800 France again took control of Louisiana.

A few years later the United States

bought Louisiana from France. Louisiana

became a U.S. state in 1812. Baton

Rouge became the state capital in 1849.

..More to explore

Louisiana

Battery

Batteries give electric power to flashlights,

radios, cell phones, handheld

games, and many other types of equipment.

A battery is a sort of container

that stores energy until it is needed.

Chemicals inside the battery store the

energy. When the battery is used, the

chemical energy changes into electric

energy.

How BatteriesWork

Inside a battery there are two pieces of

metal in a liquid or a paste. The metal

parts are called electrodes. The liquid or

paste, called an electrolyte, is a mix of

chemicals. Each electrode has a point,

called a terminal, that sticks out of the

battery.

“Baton rouge”

means “red

stick” in

French. French

settlers named

the town for a

post they saw

that marked a

boundary

between

Native American

territories.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Battery 39

For a battery to work, the terminals

must be linked by an outside wire. Then

the chemicals in the electrolyte cause

tiny particles called electrons to flow out

of one electrode’s terminal (the negative

terminal). The electrons travel along the

wire back to the other terminal (the

positive terminal). This flow of electrons

is an electric current. The wire usually

runs through a lightbulb or other device

before returning to the battery. The current

flowing through the wire makes the

device work.

Types of Batteries

There are two basic types of batteries. A

battery that can be used only once is

called a primary battery. When the metals

or electrolyte is used up, the battery

can no longer make electricity. The batteries

used in flashlights, radios, and toys

are primary batteries.

A battery that can be used more than

once is a secondary battery. Car batteries

and some batteries used in telephones

and medical equipment are secondary

batteries. Secondary batteries can be

recharged with an electric current from

another source. For example, a person

can recharge a cell phone battery by

plugging the cell phone into an electric

socket in a wall.

#More to explore

Electricity • Energy

Bean

Beans are seeds that people often eat.

They are an excellent source of protein.

Beans are used in many dishes, including

soups and chili.

Many different plants produce beans,

but they are all members of the same

scientific family. The family includes

peas, peanuts, and lentils as well as

beans. These plants grow in most parts

of the world. Most types grow either as a

bush or as a climbing plant.

In some flashlights, two or more batteries

produce an electric current. The current

flows out of the batteries, through a wire,

and through a lightbulb.

40 Bean BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Beans come in many colors—white,

green, yellow, tan, pink, red, brown,

purple, and black. They also have different

shapes. Some are nearly round or

oval. Others are flat or kidney-shaped.

Beans grow inside cases called pods or

legumes. Pods are usually 3 to 8 inches

(7.6 to 20 centimeters) long. They come

in shades of green, yellow, red, and

purple. Many pods are too tough to eat.

This is why beans are usually taken out

of the pod. Some pods can be eaten if

they are picked at an early stage in their

growth. These include green beans (also

known as snap or string beans).

Dry beans are grown only for their dry

seeds, not the pods. They include pinto,

lima, navy, black, kidney, fava, and

mung beans.

One of the most useful beans is the soybean.

Many chemical products, including

paint, are made from soybean oil.

Soybeans are fed to farm animals. They

are also a rich source of protein for

people around the world. They are used

to make soy milk, soy sauce, and tofu.

#More to explore

Legume • Seed

Bear

Bears are large, powerful mammals

related to dogs and raccoons. The biggest

bears are the world’s largest animals

that live on land and eat meat.

There are several species, or types, of

bear. They are the polar bear, the brown

bear, the black bear, the Asiatic black

bear, the sun bear, the spectacled bear,

and the sloth bear. The brown bear is

commonly called the grizzly bear in

North America. Most scientists also consider

the giant panda to be a member of

the bear family.

Where Bears Live

Bears are found in the Americas,

Europe, and Asia. They are often found

in mountainous areas and forests. The

black bear lives in North America. The

Beans come in many different shapes, sizes,

and colors.

Many beans are taken out of the pod

before they are eaten.

The polar bear

has fur on the

bottom of its

feet. This fur

helps the bear

to keep from

slipping on

ice.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bear 41

brown bear is found in North America,

Europe, and Asia. The Asiatic black bear

and the sloth bear live in parts of Asia.

The world’s far northern regions called

the Arctic are home to the polar bear.

Physical Features

Bears range in height from about 3 to

10 feet (1 to 3 meters). The sun bear is

the smallest species. A kind of Alaskan

brown bear called the Kodiak bear is the

largest bear. It may weigh 1,720 pounds

(780 kilograms). Some polar bears are

almost that big.

Most bears are mainly brown, redbrown,

or black. Some have white markings

on the chest or face. The type called

the black bear is sometimes actually

brown, blue-gray, or even white. The

polar bear’s white fur helps it blend in

with the Arctic ice and snow.

A bear has a broad head, a heavy body,

short legs, and a small tail. Bears have

poor eyesight but an excellent sense of

smell. Most kinds are good at climbing

trees and at swimming.

Behavior

Bears are carnivores, or meat eaters. For

example, the polar bear eats seals, walruses,

and fish. However, other bears eat

a lot of plants as well as animals. They

may eat roots, seeds, berries, and nuts in

addition to insects, fish, and deer.

In the autumn most bears eat a lot to

put on extra fat. They then sleep

through most of the winter. This is similar

to a very deep resting state called

hibernation. But bears are not true

hibernators. Their body temperature,

heartbeat rate, and breathing rate do not

drop much lower than normal.

#More to explore

Hibernation • Mammal • Panda

Beatles, The

The Beatles were one of the most successful

and influential pop-music groups

of the 1960s. This quartet of British

musicians were rhythm guitarist John

Lennon (October 9, 1940–December 8,

1980); bass guitarist Paul McCartney

(born June 18, 1942); lead guitarist

George Harrison (February 25, 1943–

Brown bears fish for salmon in Alaska. November 29, 2001); and drummer

A polar bear travels over snow and ice in

the Arctic region of Canada.

42 Beatles, The BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ringo Starr (originally Richard Starkey;

born July 7, 1940).

Beginnings

Lennon formed a band in Liverpool,

England, while in high school in the

mid-1950s. McCartney and then Harrison

joined the group in the late 1950s.

In its early years the band also had several

other members. In 1962 they signed

a recording contract with a large music

company. At about this time they chose

Starr to replace drummer Pete Best.

At first the Beatles’ songs were upbeat

and fairly simple. The first song

recorded by the Beatles was “Love Me

Do” in 1962. Their first hit came the

following year, when “Please Please Me”

climbed to the top of the British music

charts.

Beatlemania

The Beatles became very famous in Britain.

People started calling the excitement

over the band Beatlemania. The Beatles

became wildly popular in the United

States too after appearing on Ed Sullivan’s

television program in February

1964. Teenage girls across the country

screamed and fainted over them, and

boys copied the Beatles’ look. By April

1964 the top five hits in the United

States were all Beatles songs.

Later Years

In the late 1960s the Beatles began creating

more adventurous music, combining

different musical styles. The album

Sergeant Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club

Band (1967) showed a new complexity.

The band also recorded the albums The

Beatles (1968), Abbey Road (1969), and

Let It Be (1970).

The pressures of fame led the Beatles to

break up in 1970. All four continued

their musical careers—Lennon with his

wife, Yoko Ono; McCartney with the

bandWings and later as a solo performer;

and Starr and Harrison mainly

as solo artists.

#More to explore

Popular Music

Beaver

Beavers are mammals known for their

building skills. They use branches,

stones, and mud to build structures

called dams. A dam stretches across a

stream and blocks the flow of water.

This creates a large pond. Beavers build

The Beatles were John Lennon, George Harrison,

Paul McCartney, and Ringo Starr.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Beaver 43

their homes in the still waters of these

ponds rather than in rushing streams.

Beavers belong to the group of animals

called rodents. They are related to mice,

squirrels, and muskrats. There are two

species, or types, of beaver. The American

beaver is found in North America.

The Eurasian beaver is found in parts of

Europe and Asia. Beavers live in rivers,

streams, and lakes. They also spend

some time on land.

Beavers are about 4 feet (1.3 meters)

long, including the tail. Beaver tails are

scaly, flat, and shaped like paddles.

Thick brown fur covers their stocky

body and short legs. Beavers use their

small front feet to carry objects. Their

large back feet are webbed, which helps

them swim. Beavers can stay underwater

for up to 15 minutes.

Beavers are active at night. They eat

mainly trees, including buds, leaves,

twigs, and the layer under the bark.

Beavers use their powerful jaws and

teeth to cut down young trees. They

work in groups to build dams. Pairs of

beavers build homes called lodges out of

sticks and mud. A lodge may be 5 feet

(1.5 meters) high. Its roof is shaped like

a dome.

#More to explore

A Eurasian beaver gnaws on a branch. Dam • Rodent

Beavers live in dome-shaped lodges. They build the lodges out of branches plastered with

mud. Tunnel entrances open into a room above water level.

44 Beaver BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Beckham, David

Soccer star David Beckham is known as

a great midfielder. His shots often

appear to “bend” around players from

the other team.

David Robert Joseph Beckham was born

on May 2, 1975, in London, England.

At age 11 he won a soccer contest. One

of England’s best teams, Manchester

United, soon took interest. As a teenager,

Beckham played for Manchester

United’s youth team and led it to a

national championship.

Beckham joined the professional

Manchester United team in 1995. He

went on to help the team win six Premier

League championships.

Beckham also played for England’s

national team for 11 years. He led the

team to appearances in theWorld Cup

in 1998, 2002, and 2006. In 2006 he

made history by becoming the only

player from England’s national team to

score a goal in threeWorld Cup tournaments.

In 2003 Beckham left Manchester

United. He joined the Spanish soccer

club Real Madrid. Four years later he

moved to the United States to play for

the Los Angeles Galaxy team. In 2008

he signed a deal to play for the Italian

team AC Milan during the Galaxy’s offseason.

..More to explore

Soccer

Bee

Bees are insects related to wasps and

ants. They live all over the world except

Antarctica. There are more than 20,000

species, or types, of bee. The best-known

kinds are honeybees and bumblebees.

People have kept honeybees for their

honey for at least 4,000 years. Honeybees

also produce beeswax, which people

use to make candles.

Physical Features

Adult bees range in length from about

0.08 to 1.6 inches (0.2 to 4 centime-

David Beckham shows his skills on the soccer

field at a match in 2005.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bee 45

ters). They usually have a short, thick

body covered with hair. Most bees are

black, often with yellow or brown markings.

Like all insects, bees have six legs.

They have two pairs of wings and five

eyes. They also have mouth parts that

act like a long tongue. Female bees also

have a stinger. Male bees cannot sting.

Role in Pollination

Bees get all their food from flowers. This

food consists of a sweet liquid called

nectar and a dustlike substance called

pollen. Honeybees change nectar into

honey, which they feed to their young.

Bees also gather pollen to feed their

young. As they go from flower to flower,

they spill some pollen. In this way bees

perform a very useful task. When pollen

spreads from one flower to another of

the same kind it allows the flowers to

make seeds and therefore to make new

flowers.

Behavior

Most kinds of bee live in small families.

But some bees live in large, organized

groups that work together. These social

bees include honeybees and some

bumblebees. They are divided into

classes. Most of the females are workers.

They gather pollen, build the nest, and

take care of all the young. Each nest has

one queen. Her eggs develop into

females. The workers’ eggs develop into

males. Male bees, called drones, help the

queen reproduce.

#More to explore

Ant • Insect • Pollen •Wasp

Beet

Beets are vegetables. They come in four

different types. The garden beet, the

sugar beet, Swiss chard, and the mangelwurzel

are all varieties of the same plant.

This plant’s scientific name is Beta vulgaris.

It is related to spinach.

Worker honeybees surround a queen as

she lays eggs.

Garden beets, or beetroots, have red roots

that are often eaten after being cooked or

pickled.

46 Beet BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Beets grow in Europe, Asia, and North

America. The beet plant is a biennial,

which means that it lives for two years.

The root forms in the first year. In garden

beets, the root is thick and usually

round. It measures 1 to 4 inches (2.5 to

10 centimeters) across when fully

grown. The roots of garden beets are

usually red or purplish red. Sugar beets

have white roots. Those of mangelwurzels

are yellowish. Swiss chard does

not have thick roots.

In the second year, a stem grows. It is

tall and leafy. The stem has groups of

small green flowers. These flowers

become brown fruits called seedballs.

The leaves of the garden beet are a good

source of vitamins A and C. Many

people also eat its root. A beet soup

called borscht is popular in eastern

Europe. Swiss chard is grown for its

large leaves, which are used in cooking.

Mangel-wurzels are mostly fed to cattle.

The sugar beet is the most valuable type

of beet. In 1747 a German chemist first

made sugar from beets. Today about one

third of the world’s sugar comes from

sugar beets.

Beethoven,

Ludwig van

The composer Ludwig van Beethoven

created some of the most influential

music in history. He transformed many

traditional forms ofWestern classical

music. For example, he set new standards

for the symphony, creating longer

pieces that expressed important ideas

and deep feelings rather than just serving

as entertainment. His works include

nine symphonies, one opera, and many

pieces for small groups and for piano

and other solo instruments.

Early Life and Career

Beethoven was born in Bonn, Germany,

in December 1770. He learned musical

composition from the official organist in

a nobleman’s court. Beethoven became

the assistant organist at age 11 and published

his first musical composition soon

after.

In 1787 Beethoven studied briefly with

the great composer Wolfgang Amadeus

Mozart in Vienna. Five years later

Beethoven settled in Vienna permanently.

There he studied with Joseph

Haydn and other famous composers.

A portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven shows

him writing his music.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Beethoven, Ludwig van 47

Growing Fame and Deafness

Beethoven became known as a highly

skilled piano player. Many of Vienna’s

wealthy residents enjoyed his music and

gave him money to live on. In 1800 he

performed some of his works at a large

public concert in Vienna. This event

helped him become widely famous.

In the late 1790s Beethoven began to lose

his hearing. For some time he continued

to compose and perform as before. But

by 1819 Beethoven had become totally

deaf. From then on he no longer

performed much in public, spending

most of his energy composing music.

In his last years Beethoven created

longer and more complicated pieces. In

1824 he conducted the first performance

of his Ninth Symphony with great

success despite being unable to hear the

music. Beethoven died in Vienna on

March 26, 1827. The masterpieces he

created continue to be performed nearly

two centuries after his death.

#More to explore

Classical Music • Mozart,Wolfgang

Amadeus

Beetle

Beetles are insects that have hardened

front wings. These front wings are not

used for flying. Instead, they cover and

protect a second pair of wings. In the

past all beetles could fly. But some kinds

have lost that ability over time.

There are at least 250,000 species, or

types, of beetle. Some beetles are called

by other names, such as weevils, fireflies,

ladybugs, borers, and chafers. Beetles are

found all over the world except Antarctica

and the peaks of the highest mountains.

Most live on land, but some live in

water.

Beetles vary greatly in size. Adult beetles

range in length from about 0.01 inch

(0.025 centimeter) to more than 7

inches (18 centimeters). Many kinds are

colorful. They may be bright orange,

red, yellow, green, or blue. Some kinds

are black or brown.

Adult beetles have two antennas, or feelers,

on the head. These help beetles find

food and recognize other beetles. Like all

insects, they have six legs. A hard covering

protects the body.

Beetles eat a great variety of foods,

including other insects, small animals,

and plants. Some kinds are useful to

humans because they eat insect pests,

garbage, or decaying meat. Other kinds

are harmful. They destroy crops, spread

disease, or eat clothing and carpet.

Beethoven

could not hear

the audience

clapping when

his Ninth Symphony

was

first played.

He did not

know that they

liked it until he

turned to look

at them.

48 Beetle BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Many beetles produce light and sound to

attract a mate or frighten an enemy. They

make light by mixing chemicals inside

special organs. They make a high-pitched

sound by rubbing together two hard

body parts.

Beetles hatch from eggs. The newborn

beetles do not look like adult beetles.

Over the course of their lives, their

form changes completely. Their bodies

change in three stages: larva, pupa, and

adult. This process is called

metamorphosis.

..More to explore

Firefly • Insect • Metamorphosis

Beijing

Population

(2007

estimate), urban

area,

11,106,000

Beijing is the capital of China, a country

in eastern Asia. The city sits between

two rivers on a plain in northeastern

China. Beijing is an old city that has

played an important role in China’s history.

It has been China’s center of government

for almost 800 years. It is also

the country’s main center of industry,

education, and culture.

Beetles come in many different sizes and colors.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Beijing 49

Places of Interest

A huge plaza called Tiananmen Square

is often the site of political celebrations.

Many museums and monuments are

located there. At one end of the square is

a large gate called the Tiananmen. It has

become a symbol of China.

Through this gate is the Forbidden

City, a group of buildings from the

1400s. It contained the palaces of

several emperors. The Forbidden City

was so named because for many years

common people were not allowed there.

It is now a museum that is open to the

public.

Beijing is famous for its many parks.

The Summer Palace is known for its

beautiful landscaping and buildings,

including temples and bridges. Tiantan

Park contains the Temple of Heaven,

where emperors used to pray. Beihai

Park was built in the 1600s. Today, its

large lake is filled with boats in the summer

and ice skaters in the winter.

Economy

Factories in Beijing make cloth, cars,

electronics, computers, and machinery.

Unlike in many large cities, farmers

grow fruits and vegetables in the city

itself. Tourism also brings money to

Beijing.

History

People have lived in the Beijing area for

thousands of years. Several towns were

built on the site and later destroyed. In

the 1200s the Mongol leader Kublai

Khan built the city of Dadu on the site.

He made Dadu the capital of China.

Except for a few brief periods, the city

has been China’s capital ever since.

The city was renamed Beijing in the

early 1400s. It was known as Peking in

the United States and otherWestern

countries until the early 1980s. “Beijing”

is now the official way to write the city’s

name in English.

The Temple of Heaven in Beijing is more

than 500 years old.

Hundreds of children show their martial arts

skills in Beijing, China.

50 Beijing BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

In 1989 students held a protest against

the government in Tiananmen Square.

Government forces brought in tanks

and killed many people to break up the

protest. People around the world

criticized the government for its actions.

In the 1980s and ’90s, three of Beijing’s

historical areas were named World

Heritage sites by a branch of the United

Nations. They were the Forbidden City,

the Summer Palace, and the Temple of

Heaven.

#More to explore

China • Mongol Empire

Beirut

Population

(2003 estimate)

1,171,000

Beirut is the capital of Lebanon, a country

in the Middle East. The city spreads

over two hills along the coast of the

Mediterranean Sea. Beirut is Lebanon’s

main port and largest city. It was once

the most modern city in the Middle

East. However, a war in the late 20th

century caused a lot of damage there.

Tourism, banking, and other services are

important to the economy. Trade

through the port also brings money to

the city. Other major industries include

printing and food processing.

Beirut is an ancient city. It has been

conquered, destroyed, and rebuilt a

number of times. Over the centuries it

was ruled by Romans, Christian

Crusaders, and Arabs. Beirut was part

of the Turkish Ottoman Empire from

the 1500s to the early 1900s. After

World War I (1914–18) the French

ruled Lebanon. They made Beirut the

capital. Lebanon became an

independent country in 1943. Beirut

remained its capital.

Groups of Lebanese Muslims and Lebanese

Christians fought each other in a

civil war from 1975 to 1991. During the

war Beirut was divided into two

sections—a Christian East Beirut and a

Muslim West Beirut. After the war the

city remained divided, but it began to

rebuild its damaged buildings and

economy. In 2006 the city was damaged

again in fighting between the Lebanese

Muslim group known as Hezbollah and

forces from Israel.

#More to explore

Lebanon

Modern buildings stand among the ruins of

ancient structures in Beirut.

Beirut has

been a center

for education

since ancient

times. The

American University

Beirut became

a respected

school during

the 1900s.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Beirut 51

Belarus

Belarus is a country in eastern Europe.

Its capital and largest city is Minsk.

Belarus shares borders with Russia,

Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, and Latvia.

Most of the country is flat, except for

central low hills. There are many wetlands,

including the Pripet Marshes in

the south. Belarus has cold winters and

cool summers.

Silver birch trees grow throughout

Belarus. Pines and spruces grow in the

north, while oak and hornbeam trees

grow in the south. Elk, deer, boars, and

European bison live in the forests. Birds

include partridges and ducks.

Belarusians make up the largest ethnic

group, followed by Russians. Most

people speak Belarusian and Russian.

Less than half the people are Christian;

the rest are nonreligious. More than two

thirds of the people live in cities.

Banking and other services, manufacturing,

and mining are important to

Belarus’ economy. Manufacturers make

machinery, chemicals, and food. Mines

provide potash, which is used to make

fertilizers. Belarus is also a leading producer

of peat, a type of fuel. Farmers

grow potatoes, sugar beets, barley, and

rye.

Slavic people settled in what is now

Belarus between the AD 500s and 700s.

Over the years the area was controlled

by various foreign powers, including

Russia, which took over in the 1700s. In

1922 Belarus became part of the Soviet

Union. In 1986 an accident at the Chernobyl

nuclear power plant in Ukraine

led to many health problems in Belarus.

In 1990 Belarus broke away from the

Soviet Union. In 1991 it declared full

independence.

..More to explore

Minsk • Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics •Wetland

People dance around a burning scarecrow

in Minsk, Belarus. The festivities are part of

a celebration marking the end of winter.

Facts About

BELARUS

Black Sea

Population

(2008 estimate)

9,675,000

Area

80,153 sq mi

(207,595 sq km)

Capital

Minsk

Form of

government

Republic

Major cities

Minsk, Homyel,

Mahilyow,

Vitsyebsk,

Hrodna

52 Belarus BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Belau

..see Palau.

Belfast

Population

(2006 estimate)

267,000

The United Kingdom is a country in

western Europe that is made up of four

main parts: England, Scotland,Wales,

andNorthern Ireland. Belfast isNorthern

Ireland’s capital and largest city. The city

is located in the northeastern part of the

island of Ireland. It lies where the Lagan

River flows into a part of the Irish Sea.

The economy of Belfast is based mainly

on service industries, such as health care,

social services, and tourism. The city is

Northern Ireland’s center of trade, banking,

and education. It is also the main

seaport in Northern Ireland.

People have lived in the Belfast area for

thousands of years. Belfast began as a

small fishing village. In the 1600s Scottish

and English settlers formed a colony

in the area. They built up a large industry

that made linen cloth.

Belfast and the rest of the island of Ireland

became part of the United Kingdom

in 1801. In 1920 the southern part

of the island became the separate country

of Ireland. Belfast was made the capital

of Northern Ireland, which remained

in the United Kingdom.

Throughout much of the 1900s Belfast

was torn by violent conflicts between its

two main groups—Protestants and

Roman Catholics. They fought about

whether Northern Ireland should stay in

the United Kingdom or join Ireland.

The United Kingdom is mainly Protestant,

while Ireland is mostly Catholic.

Most of the city’s people are Protestant.

In the late 1960s Belfast’s Catholics protested

against unfair treatment by the

Protestants. Deadly violence broke out.

Many people left the city in the 1970s

and 1980s because of the violence and

the loss of manufacturing jobs. The

fighting lasted until a peace agreement

was signed in 1998. After that the city

was more stable, and its economy

improved. However, clashes broke out

again in the early 21st century.

..More to explore

Northern Ireland • United Kingdom

Queen’s University is the oldest university in

Belfast. It was founded in 1845 by Victoria,

queen of the United Kingdom.

Belfast is

famous for its

shipbuilding.

The passenger

ship Titanic,

which sank

during its first

trip in 1912,

was built in

Belfast.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Belfast 53

Belgium

The Kingdom of Belgium is a small,

prosperous country in northwestern

Europe. Brussels is the capital and largest

city.

Geography

Belgium is bordered by The Netherlands,

Germany, Luxembourg, and France. The

North Sea lies to the northwest.

Belgium is divided into three main

regions. Lower Belgium, in the north, is

flat and low. Middle Belgium, in the

central part of the country, has many

farms on its plains. Upper Belgium, in

the south, includes the Ardennes highlands

and forests. Most of Belgium’s

wild animals—including boars, wildcats,

deer, and pheasants—are found in the

Ardennes.

People

Belgians are divided into two main

groups. More than half of the people are

Flemings, who live mostly in the north.

About one third are Walloons, who live

mostly in the south. The Flemings speak

Netherlandic, also known as Flemish or

Dutch. TheWalloons speak French. A

smaller number of people speak German.

Most Belgians are Roman Catholics.

Most of the people live in cities.

Economy

Banking and other services, manufacturing,

and international trade are the most

important parts of Belgium’s economy.

Manufacturers make chemicals, food

products, cars and car parts, and

machinery. The city of Antwerp is a

center of diamond cutting and dealing.

Farming is only a small part of the

economy.

History

Belgium takes its name from the

Belgae, a group of Celts who settled in

The Ardennes is a region of hills and forests

in the south of Belgium.

54 Belgium BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

the region during prehistoric times. The

Romans, led by Julius Caesar,

conquered the area in 57 BC. Germanic

Franks took control of the area in the

AD 400s and converted the people to

Christianity. By the end of the 800s

Belgium was divided into many

independent territories. Flemish towns

became centers of international trade

during the Middle Ages.

Foreign Rule

In the 1300s Belgium came under the

control of Burgundy, a territory that

included part of France. The Hapsburgs,

a powerful German family, ruled Belgium

for most of the 1500s through the

1700s.

In 1795 France seized Belgium. Following

the defeat of French emperor Napoleon

I in 1815, Belgium passed to the

mostly Protestant country of The Netherlands.

The many Roman Catholics in

Belgium fiercely resisted Dutch rule. In

1830 the Belgians rose up in rebellion,

and the following year they proclaimed

the independent Kingdom of Belgium.

Independence

In the late 1800s Belgian king Leopold

II gained control of a colony in the

Congo region of Africa (now the Democratic

Republic of the Congo). The Belgians

ruled their colony, sometimes

harshly, until 1960.

DuringWorldWar I (1914–18) and

WorldWar II (1939–45) Germany

invaded and occupied Belgium. During

WorldWar II the Nazis sent hundreds of

thousands of Belgians to Germany and

forced them to work.

AfterWorldWar II Belgium supported

the peaceful cooperation between the

countries of western Europe. It was a

founding member of the North Atlantic

Treaty Organization (NATO) and the

European Economic Community (later

called the European Union).

During the 1960s tensions grew

between Flemings andWalloons. The

government divided Belgium into three

language regions: Flemish Flanders,

FrenchWallonia, and bilingual Brussels.

In the 1990s the regions gained more

power to govern their own affairs, such

as education, transportation, and cultural

matters. They shared other powers

with the national government. The king

kept little political power.

..More to explore

Brussels • Congo, Democratic Republic

of the • European Union • Hapsburgs

• North Atlantic Treaty Organization

The city of Brugge in northwestern Belgium

is known for its network of canals.

Facts About

BELGIUM

Population

(2008 estimate)

10,697,000

Area

11,787 sq mi

(30,528 sq km)

Capital

Brussels

Form of

government

Federal constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Brussels, Antwerp,

Ghent,

Charleroi, Liege

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Belgium 55

Belgrade

Population

(2002 estimate)

1,120,092

Belgrade is the capital of Serbia, a country

in southeastern Europe. The city is

located where the Sava and Danube

rivers meet.

Most of Serbia’s industry is in Belgrade.

Factories there make tractors, machines,

electrical equipment, chemicals, and

clothing. Many people in Belgrade work

for the government or in service industries,

such as education and banking.

Serbia’s best farmland is also in the Belgrade

region.

Belgrade has long been an important

city because of its location. Several land

and river trade routes meet at the city’s

site. Celtic people settled the site in the

300s BC. The town was later attacked

and rebuilt many times. In AD 1284 a

group called the Serbs captured Belgrade.

In 1402 they made Belgrade the

capital of their kingdom. The Turkish

Ottoman Empire ruled the city from

1521 to the 1800s. In the late 1800s

Belgrade again became the capital of

Serbia.

In the 1900s fighting damaged Belgrade

many times, including during World

Wars I and II. In 1918 the city became

the capital of the new Kingdom of

Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. That

country was later renamed Yugoslavia.

In the early 1990s parts of Yugoslavia

broke away, leaving only Serbia and

neighboring Montenegro in the

country. In 1999 a part of Serbia called

Kosovo tried to break free. International

forces bombed Belgrade during the

conflict.

In 2003 Yugoslavia changed its name to

Serbia and Montenegro. The government

remained in Belgrade. In 2006

Serbia and Montenegro split, and Belgrade

became the capital of Serbia.

..More to explore

Serbia

A crowd of students gathers at

Saint Sava Church in Belgrade

for a peace celebration.

56 Belgrade BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Belize

The Central American country of Belize

was Great Britain’s last colony on the

American mainland. The capital is Belmopan.

Belize is bordered by Mexico and Guatemala.

The Caribbean Sea lies to the east.

Rain forests cover much of the interior.

The Maya Mountains run through the

south. Lowlands lie along the coast. The

climate is warm year-round. Hurricanes

may occur from July through November,

during the rainy season.

Forests of mahogany, sapodilla, and

other trees cover almost half of Belize.

Grasslands and mangrove trees cover the

coastal lowlands.Wild animals include

jaguars, tapirs, American crocodiles, and

manatees.

The people of Belize include mestizos

(people with both European and Mayan

roots), Creoles (those with European and

African roots), Maya Indians, and Garifuna

(those with African and Carib

Indian roots). There are also some whites

and Asians. English is the official language,

but people speak many local languages.

Most of the people are Christian.

About half of the people live in cities.

Tourism and trade are the most important

parts of Belize’s economy. But

many people in Belize earn their living

from farming. Sugarcane, oranges,

grapefruit, and bananas are among the

main food crops. Fishing and logging

are important, too. Belize’s exports

include shrimp, sugar, fruit, and clothing.

The Maya lived in what is now Belize

from about AD 300 to 900. The Spanish

came in the 1500s. British loggers

settled there in the 1600s. In 1862 Great

Britain made the area the colony of British

Honduras. Belize gained independence

in 1981.

..More to explore

Belmopan • Central America • Maya

The Mayan ruins of Xunantunich sit on a

hilltop in Belize.

Facts About

BELIZE

Population

(2008 estimate)

323,000

Area

8,867 sq mi

(22,965 sq km)

Capital

Belmopan

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Belize City, San

Ignacio/Santa

Elena, Orange

Walk, Belmopan,

Dangriga

US . BUMBRA. FOL R

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Belize 57

Bell, Alexander

Graham

Alexander Graham Bell was an inventor

and a teacher of the deaf. He is famous

for creating one of the world’s most

important communication devices—the

telephone.

Alexander Graham Bell was born in

Edinburgh, Scotland, on March 3,

1847. Alexander was mostly schooled at

home. As a young man Alexander

worked with his father to teach deaf

people to speak.

In the mid-1870s, Bell began work on

the telephone with Thomas Augustus

Watson. On March 10, 1876, Bell made

the first successful test of the telephone.

He spoke a few words toWatson, beginning

with “Mr.Watson, come here.”

At the Centennial Exposition of 1876 in

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Bell and

Watson demonstrated the telephone to

the public. People were amazed by this

new device. In 1877 Bell established the

Bell Telephone Company.

After his success with the telephone, Bell

pursued his interests in science, invention,

and the education of deaf people.

In 1890 he founded an organization in

Washington, D.C., to teach speech to

hearing-impaired people. This organization

later became the Alexander Graham

Bell Association for the Deaf and Hard

of Hearing.

Alexander Graham Bell died on August

2, 1922. At the time of his burial, every

telephone of the Bell system in the

United States and Canada was kept

silent for one minute.

#More to explore

Telephone

Bell, Cool Papa

The baseball player called Cool Papa

Bell is known as one of the fastest base

runners of all time. He was elected to

the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1974.

James Thomas Bell was born on May

17, 1903, in Starkville, Mississippi. He

began playing baseball as a professional

at age 19. At the time, African Americans

were not allowed to play for major

league teams. They played instead for

teams in the Negro leagues.

Bell earned the nickname Cool Papa as a

young pitcher. One day he struck out

Oscar Charleston, a future Hall of Fame

Alexander Graham Bell demonstrates his

telephone in 1876.

Alexander

Graham Bell

also invented

a machine

called a photophone.

transmitted

sound on a

beam of light.

58 Bell, Alexander Graham BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

player, without showing any nervousness

at all. Later, after hurting his pitching

arm, Bell played in the outfield.

Bell’s career lasted from 1922 to 1950.

He played for several different Negro

league teams as well as for leagues in

Mexico and the Dominican Republic. In

1940 he won the Mexican League’s

triple crown, leading the league in batting

average, home runs, and runs batted

in.

Bell’s outstanding talent was his speed.

It is believed that he once stole 175

bases in less than 200 games. The most

famous story about his speed was told by

his old roommate Satchel Paige. Paige

joked that Cool Papa could turn out the

hotel room lights and be in his bed

before the room got dark!

Bell finished his baseball career in 1950

as a player-manager of a team in Kansas

City. He died on March 7, 1991.

Belmopan

Population

(2007 estimate)

16,435

Belmopan is the capital of the small

Central American country of Belize.

Most people in the city work for the

government of Belize.

Belize City was once the capital of Belize.

Floods from a hurricane damaged

Belize City in 1961. The government of

Belize decided to build a new capital. It

chose a site away from the coast to avoid

flooding.Work began on Belmopan in

1966. The government offices moved

there in 1970. But few people moved

there besides government workers.

..More to explore

Belize

Cool Papa Bell

A fruit and vegetable market overflows with

goods in Belmopan.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Belmopan 59

Benin

Benin is a country on the west coast of

Africa. Porto-Novo is the capital, but

many government offices are in the city

of Cotonou.

Benin is bordered by Niger, Nigeria,

Togo, and Burkina Faso. The Gulf of

Guinea lies to the south. Benin is mostly

flat but has some hills and low mountains.

It is hot and humid in the south.

The north is drier.

Woodlands cover most of central Benin.

Grasslands cover the north. Elephants,

antelope, panthers, monkeys, crocodiles,

and tropical birds live in the south.

There are more than 40 ethnic groups in

Benin. The largest groups are the Fon,

the Yoruba, and the Adjara. Most

Beninese are Christians or follow traditional

beliefs, including voodoo. About

20 percent of the people are Muslims.

French is the official language, but most

people speak local languages.

Benin’s economy is based on agriculture.

Its main crops include cassava, yams,

corn, cotton, and oil palm fruit. The

Beninese also raise cattle, goats, sheep,

pigs, and chickens. Trade is another

important industry. Benin’s main products

are cotton yarn, food and beverages,

and crude petroleum (oil).

In the early 1600s several kingdoms,

including the large and powerful

Dahomey kingdom, ruled what is now

Benin. Dahomey became one of the

largest suppliers of slaves to Europeans.

France made Dahomey a colony in

1894.

Dahomey became independent in 1960.

After years of political troubles, army

officer Mathieu Kerekou seized power in

1972. In 1975 he changed the country’s

name to Benin. In the 1990s Benin got

a more democratic government.

..More to explore

Dahomey • Porto-Novo

A traditional village stands in the hills of

Benin.

Facts About

BENIN

Population

(2008 estimate)

8,295,000

Area

43,484 sq mi

(112,622 sq km)

Capital

Porto-Novo

Form of

government

Multiparty

republic

Major cities

Cotonou, Porto-

Novo, Parakou,

Djougou,

Abomey

60 Benin BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bering Sea

The Bering Sea lies between Asia and

North America in the far northern part

of the Pacific Ocean. On the west the

sea borders the part of Russia called

Siberia. To the east is the U.S. state of

Alaska. The Aleutian Islands stretch

across the sea’s southern boundary.

The Bering Sea is one of the coldest and

most dangerous seas in the world. In

winter, the temperature over northern

and eastern parts of the sea may drop to

.49� F (.45� C). Floating ice is common

in the north. Ships normally sail in

the sea only between May or June and

October.

Fishing and fish-related industries are

the main economic activities in the

region. More than 300 species of fish are

found in the Bering Sea. They include

herring, cod, flounder, halibut, and pollack.

Huge numbers of salmon from

Alaska and Russia spend their adult lives

in the sea. There are also many shellfish.

The islands in the Bering Sea are a

breeding ground for sea otters and fur

seals. A huge number of seabirds also

live in and around the sea.

..More to explore

Pacific Ocean

Berlin

Population

(2006

estimate), city,

3,395,189;

urban area,

4,200,072

Berlin is the capital of Germany, a country

in central Europe. It is Germany’s

largest city. Berlin is also a center of education

and culture. Two of Germany’s

leading universities are in the city. The

Berlin Opera and Berlin Philharmonic

Orchestra are world famous.

Economy

Trade and the development of technology

are important to Berlin’s economy.

Water flows under a natural arch on the

Bering Sea in Alaska.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Berlin 61

The city is also a center of industry. Factories

in Berlin make electronics,

machinery, chemicals, cloth, and many

other products.

History

Berlin was founded in the early 1200s. It

was the capital of the German kingdom

of Prussia for most of the 1700s and

1800s. The city later became the capital

of Germany.

During WorldWar II (1939–45) Berlin

was nearly destroyed. The city was the

site of heavy bombing and bloody fighting.

More than 150,000 residents of

Berlin died.

Germany lost the war to the countries

known as the Allies. The Allies divided

Germany into two countries: East Germany

and West Germany. They also

divided Berlin into two sections. East

Berlin became the capital of East Germany.

(The capital ofWest Germany

was Bonn.) Different Allied powers created

different types of government in

East andWest Germany. The Soviet

Union brought Communism into East

Germany and East Berlin. The other

Allied powers madeWest Germany and

West Berlin a democracy.

About 2.5 million people fled from East

Berlin intoWest Berlin between 1949

and 1961. To prevent more people from

leaving, East Germany built a wall

through Berlin. The BerlinWall was

heavily guarded. It separated East Berlin

fromWest Berlin for almost 30 years.

East Germany’s Communist government

collapsed in 1989. People began to

tear down the BerlinWall. In 1990 the

two parts of Germany and Berlin were

reunited. Berlin was again the capital of

all of Germany.

..More to explore

Communism • Democracy • Germany

•WorldWar II

Bermuda

Bermuda is a cluster of islands in the

North Atlantic Ocean. There are seven

main islands and about 170 small

islands. The seven main islands form a

shape that looks like a fishhook. Bermuda

is a colony of Great Britain. The

capital is Hamilton.

Bermuda is far from other land. The

closest land is Cape Hatteras, North

Carolina, which lies about 650 miles

(1,050 kilometers) to the west. The largest

island is Great Bermuda, which is

In 1948–49

the United

States and its

allies brought

food to Berlin

in airplanes,

after Soviet

troops blocked

the roads. This

project was

called the

Berlin Airlift.

For many years the Brandenburg Gate, on

the left, was part of a wall that divided East

and West Berlin. Now it stands at the center

of a reunited Berlin.

62 Bermuda BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

usually called Main Island. It is larger

than all the other islands combined.

Coral reefs surround the islands.

Bermuda’s climate is mild and humid.

Common plants include flowering

shrubs and palm, pine, and mangrove

trees. Some birds visit the islands every

year as they migrate. Lizards and frogs

are the only other wildlife.

More than half of the people of Bermuda

are black. They are descendants of

Africans that white settlers brought to

the islands as slaves. There are also many

British and some Portuguese. English

and Portuguese are the main languages.

Bermuda’s economy depends on services.

Tourism and finance are the most

important industries. Many insurance

companies and other financial businesses

have offices in Bermuda.

Bermuda was named for the Spanish

explorer Juan de Bermudez. He may

have visited the islands in 1503. English

settlers arrived in Bermuda in the early

1600s. Britain made Bermuda a colony

in 1684.

Britain and, later, the United States set

up military bases in Bermuda. By the

late 20th century the bases had been

shut down. However, Bermuda

remained a British colony. In 1995 the

people of the islands voted against independence

from Britain.

..More to explore

Atlantic Ocean • Coral

Bern

Population

(2007

estimate), urban

area, 344,724

Bern is the capital of Switzerland, a

country in central Europe. The Aare

River loops through the older part of

the city. Bern’s name comes from the

German word for “bear.” Bears are a

symbol of the city. They have been kept

on display in Bern for hundreds of

years.

Many people in the city work for the

government or the University of Bern.

Tourism is also important to the

economy. Factories in Bern make milk

chocolate, condensed milk, machinery,

and scientific instruments.

Bern began in 1191 as a military post.

According to legend, it was named for

the first animal killed by its founder,

Berthold V, in that year. It grew into a

city and then into an independent state.

Bern became part of Switzerland in

1353. From the 1300s to the 1700s

Bern was very powerful. This power

ended when the French invaded in

1798. French rule ended in 1803. Bern

became the capital of Switzerland in

1848.

..More to explore

Switzerland

The Universal

Postal Union,

a group that

sets rules for

the flow of

mail between

countries, is

based in Bern,

Switzerland.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bern 63

Berry

Berries are small, fleshy fruits that usually

have many seeds. People and animals

eat many types of berries.

A true berry is a single fruit that grows

from one flower. Blueberries, cranberries,

currants, and gooseberries are all

true berries.

Botanists, or people who study plants,

call many other fruits true berries. These

fruits include grapes, tomatoes, dates,

watermelons, and oranges.

Most people call other fruits berries—

for example, blackberries, raspberries,

and strawberries. But these are not true

berries. They are aggregate fruits, or

groups of little fruits that grow from

one flower. Mulberries are not true

berries, either. They are multiple fruits,

or fruits that grow from a bunch of

flowers.

..More to explore

Blueberry • Cranberry • Fruit

• Raspberry • Strawberry

Bethlehem

Population

(2007 estimate)

25,266

Bethlehem is an ancient town in the

Middle East. It is important to Christians,

who believe it is where Jesus

Christ was born. Bethlehem lies just

outside the city of Jerusalem. It is

located in an area called the West Bank.

In modern times the country of Israel

and the Palestinian people have fought

to control theWest Bank.

Tourists from all over the world visit

Bethlehem because of its religious

importance. Craftspeople in the town

make religious gift items to sell to the

tourists. Bethlehem is also a center of

trade and a market for local farm

products.

Bethlehem is an important historical site

to Jews as well as to Christians. The

town is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible

as the early home of King David. He

ruled a Jewish kingdom about 3,000

years ago.

The Christian Bible tells that Jesus was

born in Bethlehem about 2,000 years

ago. In the 300s the Church of the

Nativity was built at the site thought to

be Jesus’ birthplace. It was rebuilt in the

Blackberries, strawberries, raspberries, and

blueberries are all called berries. But scientists

say that only one of them, the blueberry,

is a true berry.

64 Berry BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

500s. Today it is one of the world’s oldest

Christian churches.

#More to explore

Israel • Jerusalem • Jesus Christ

• Palestine

Bethune, Mary

McLeod

Throughout her life Mary McLeod

Bethune worked to improve the lives of

African Americans. She served as an

adviser to President Franklin Roosevelt

on the problems of minority groups. She

also led several African American organizations.

Mary McLeod was born on July 10,

1875, on a small farm near Mayesville,

South Carolina. Her parents were

former slaves. She was not able to go to

school until 1885, when missionaries

opened a school for black children. She

went on to college in North Carolina

and Illinois. In 1898 she married Albertus

Bethune.

She taught school in the South and in

1904 opened a school for black girls in

Daytona Beach, Florida. She later said

she started the school with nothing

more than “five little girls, a dollar and a

half, and faith in God.” It later merged

with a school for boys called Cookman

Institute and became Bethune-

Cookman College.

Bethune later entered public life. In

1936 Roosevelt appointed her to the

National Youth Administration. The

year before that she had founded the

National Council of NegroWomen. She

also served as vice president of the

National Association for the Advancement

of Colored People (NAACP) from

1940 to 1955. She died on May 18,

1955.

#More to explore

African Americans • National

Association for the Advancement of

Colored People • Roosevelt, Franklin D.

Many Christians visit Bethlehem at Christmastime

to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ.

Mary McLeod Bethune

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bethune, Mary McLeod 65

Bhutan

The country of Bhutan lies in the high

Himalayas of south-central Asia. The

capital is Thimphu.

Bhutan is surrounded by China and

India. In the north, snowcapped mountains

rise to more than 24,000 feet

(7,300 meters). Valleys cover central

Bhutan. In the south are jungles and

savannas.

Pine and oak trees grow on the mountains.

In the summer, yaks graze in pastures

on the mountain slopes.Wild

animals include snow leopards, monkeys,

and migrating birds.

The Bhutia, people with ancestors from

the Tibet region of China, make up

about half of the population. The Bhutia

practice Buddhism, the official religion,

and mainly speak Dzongkha, the official

language. The Nepalese are the second

largest group. They speak Nepali and

practice Hinduism. The smallest group

is the Sharchops, Buddhists from nearby

Indian areas who probably lived in the

region first.

Farming is the main occupation of Bhutan.

Farmers raise cattle, pigs, goats,

horses, and sheep. They grow corn, rice,

potatoes, sugarcane, wheat, fruits, and

vegetables. Logging and construction are

also important to the economy.

People from Tibet likely settled in what

is now Bhutan in the AD 800s. In the

1600s a Tibetan Buddhist priest became

the first king of Bhutan. The country’s

kings kept Bhutan isolated from the rest

of the world for hundreds of years. In

the mid-1900s that began to change.

The king at the time made changes to

start to modernize the country. By 2008

Bhutan had a new constitution and an

elected parliament for the first time.

..More to explore

Himalayas • Thimphu • Tibet

A Buddhist monastery known as the Tiger’s

Nest sits high up on a cliffside in western

Bhutan.

Facts About

BHUTAN

Population

(2008 estimate)

682,000

Area

14,824 sq mi

(38,394 sq km)

Capital

Thimphu

Form of

government

Constitutional

monarchy

Major cities

Thimphu,

Phuntsholing

66 Bhutan BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Bible

The Bible is an important book to both

Jews and Christians. However, the Bible

of Judaism is different from the Bible of

Christianity, even though they include

some of the same writings. The books of

the Bible were written by many different

authors over many hundreds of years.

The Bible of Judaism

The Jewish Bible focuses on the religious

experiences of the ancient nation of

Israel. It was written from about 1200

BC to 100 BC, mostly in Hebrew. It contains

24 books divided into three sections:

the Law, the Prophets, and the

Writings.

The first five books are Genesis, Exodus,

Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

Together they are known as the Law

because they explain and interpret God’s

laws. They also tell how ancient Israel

became a nation and came to possess the

promised land. These five books are

sometimes called the Torah.

The books of the Prophets contain messages

from the prophets—people of

ancient Israel who spoke to the nation

on behalf of God. These books also tell

more about the history of ancient Israel.

The Writings section includes a variety

of books that contain poetry, stories,

history, and other types of literature.

Among them is the Psalms, a collection

of sacred songs and poems from various

periods in the history of Israel. The

otherWritings use sayings and stories to

teach people about proper behavior.

The Bible of Christianity

The Christian Bible is made up of two

parts: the Old Testament and the New

Testament. The Old Testament is very

similar to the Jewish Bible, but the

books are arranged and numbered differently.

Not all Christian Bibles are exactly alike.

Besides the 39 books of the Christian

Old Testament, Roman Catholic and

Eastern Orthodox churches include

some books that are not accepted by

Protestants. These books are known as

the Apocrypha. The Jewish Bible does

not contain the Apocrypha either.

The word Bible

comes from a

word in the

Greek language

that

means “book.”

Many early copies of the Bible were written

by hand. They included colorful pictures.

One such illustration shows a story from the

book of Exodus. It tells how Moses helped

free the Israelites by leading them from

Egypt through the Red Sea.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bible 67

Christians created the New Testament

after Jesus’ death to help spread the message

about Jesus to the world. The New

Testament is thought to have been written

between about AD 50 and 150. The

New Testament has four sections: the

Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, the

Epistles (letters), and Revelation.

The four books called the Gospels tell

about Jesus’ life and teachings. Each

book is believed to have been written by

one of Jesus’ closest followers: Matthew,

Mark, Luke, and John.

The Acts of the Apostles tell about the

early history of the church and its messengers

(apostles) after Jesus’ death.

The Epistles are letters of advice and

instruction. Saint Paul wrote most of

them. All the letters were later copied

and spread among the churches in the

Roman Empire to give followers solutions

to local church problems and

instructions on how to live a Christian

life. The letters also gave interpretations

of the Gospels.

The Book of Revelation describes the

end of the world and the events leading

up to it. It sends a message of hope to

Christians, reminding them to keep

their faith through trying situations

because the Kingdom of God is near.

#More to explore

Christianity • Eastern Orthodox

Churches • Jesus Christ • Judaism

• Protestantism • Roman Catholicism

• Torah

Bicycle

A bicycle, or bike, is a machine for getting

from place to place. Most bicycles

The books of the New Testament were originally written in Greek. The Greek text can be

seen on a page from a Bible made in the 500s.

68 Bicycle BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

have two wheels set in a frame. The

frame includes handlebars for steering, a

seat, and two pedals. Millions of people

throughout the world ride bicycles for

fun, for exercise, for sport (called

cycling), and for transportation.

How a BicycleWorks

To ride a bicycle, the rider sits on the

seat and places the feet on the pedals.

The pedals are connected by a chain to

the back wheel. When the rider pushes

on the pedals, the back wheel turns.

This moves the bicycle forward. The

rider steers by turning the handlebars or

by leaning.

Bicycles may have coaster brakes or

hand brakes. On a bicycle with coaster

brakes, a rider stops by pedaling backward.

Hand brakes are controlled using

levers on the handlebars. When a rider

squeezes the levers, pads squeeze against

the wheels and the bicycle stops.

Some bicycles also have gears, or speeds.

Shifting, or changing, gears lets the rider

keep a steady pedaling speed when traveling

on different surfaces. Higher gears

make pedaling harder but allow the

bicycle to go faster. A rider may shift the

bicycle into a higher gear when riding

on smooth, flat ground. Lower gears

make pedaling easier but slow down the

bicycle. A rider may shift to a lower gear

when riding up a hill.

Types of Bicycles

There are six main types of bicycles:

utility, mountain, hybrid, touring, racing,

and bicycle motocross (BMX). Utility

bicycles have heavy frames and

usually one speed. Mountain bikes have

wide tires, flat handlebars, and many

speeds. They are good for riding on

rough trails. Hybrid bicycles are like

mountain bikes, but their tires are not as

wide. They are good for both roads and

off-road trails. Touring and racing

bicycles have narrow tires, lightweight

frames, curved handlebars, and many

speeds. They are often called road bikes

because they are best for riding on roads.

BMX bikes are designed for racing on

dirt tracks. BMX bikes have a small

Safe bicyclists always wear helmets.

Two men ride an early form of bicycle

called an ordinary, or a penny-farthing.

BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA Bicycle 69

frame, a low seat, high handlebars, and

one speed.

History

The first machines similar to bicycles

were invented in the early 1800s. They

had no pedals. Later machines had pedals

and front wheels that were much

larger than the back wheels. The front

wheels were about 5 feet (1.5 meters)

tall. By about 1900 bicycles looked similar

to the bicycles of today.

#More to explore

Cycling • Transportation

Big Tree

#see Giant Sequoia.

Bill of Rights

A written statement that explains the

basic freedoms and rights of citizens is

generally called a bill of rights. In the

United States, the first 10 amendments

to the Constitution are called the Bill of

Rights.

History

For most of human history there was no

thought given to the rights of individual

citizens. The king or other ruler often

had complete power over the people.

This began to change in the late Middle

Ages. The nobles of England forced

King John in 1215 to guarantee them

certain rights. The document he signed

was called the Magna Carta, or Great

Charter.

Many years later people in some countries

tried to change their governments

so that the governments would represent

the people and not just the king. They

often drew up a bill of rights. England

produced a Bill of Rights in 1689, and

the French Declaration of the Rights of

Man (1789) stated the principles of the

French Revolution.

United States Bill of Rights

The U.S. Constitution of 1787 set up a

government that was subject to majority

rule. However, many people wanted to

protect individual rights and limit government

power. They put statements

such as the Virginia Declaration of

Rights (1776) into state constitutions.

Their demands led lawmakers to add 10

amendments to the Constitution in

1791. Among other things, those

amendments guarantee freedom of religion,

freedom of speech, and the right

to public assembly. The rights granted

The U.S. Bill of Rights became law in 1791. by the Bill of Rights are not absolute.

70 Big Tree BRITANNICA STUDENT ENCYCLOPEDIA

Decisions by judges have expanded

some rights and reduced others.